During the winter of 1982 concurrent outbreaks of influenza A and influenza B occurred. The epidemiology and clinical features of 151 cases referred during this time are described, and patients are discussed according to age and presenting clinical syndrome: croup was the commonest presentation in young children, a typical influenza syndrome predominated in young adults, while older patients were more likely to have lower respiratory tract infection. There was no significant difference between the clinical features of influenza A and influenza B. Unusual clinical features include rash, exudative tonsillitis and the need for myringotomy during the course of influenza.

Subcutaneous inoculations: Two strains of human origin were tested, one was of eugonic human type from the sputum of an English case of pulmonary tuberculosis; the other was of dysgonic human type obtained by Dr J. A. Young from a native in Nigeria. Both strains produced typical general tuberculosis in the hamster, the lesions on the whole showing less caseation than those set up by bovine bacilli (vide 1939).

The vole strain of bacillus gave rise to generalized disease resembling tuberculosis. The duration of life of the animal was, however, prolonged and though the bacilli were abundant in the lesions there was no necrosis or caseation. Similar results in two hamsters were reported in 1939.

The avian bacillus was the least pathogenic of the four types. Of the three hamsters inoculated only one (H. 17, dose 5·0 mg.) showed macroscopic foci in the liver and spleen; as these were not seen microscopically in sections it is doubtful if they were due to the action of tubercle bacilli. It is unfortunate that the specimens of Hamster 17, which died in my absence from the laboratory, were badly fixed; a smear preparation of the spleen was not made. In the others tubercle bacilli were found in the organs, but were not numerous. The peculiar result after 5·0 mg. of avian bacilli—enormous multiplication of bacilli in spleen, liver and a local gland without macroscopic tuberculous lesions—described in the first paper was not reproduced.

Feeding: The four different types of bacilli were given by the mouth to six hamsters, the dose in each instance being 10 mg. of culture. Two of the hamsters, one fed with a potato culture of the vole strain, the other with a human strain, escaped infection. The remaining four hamsters, each fed with one of the four types of bacilli, developed disease, the severity of which in each instance was in harmony with that following subcutaneous inoculation of the type.

We analysed the reactivity of enterovirus-specific human IgM and IgG antibodies with the structural proteins of different enteroviruses by the immunoblot technique. In general, all immunoglobulin G antibodies of the tested sera reacted with capsid polypeptide VP 1 of the viruses tested (echoviruses 9 and 11, coxsackievirus B3 and poliovirus 2). In contrast, enterovirus specific immunoglobulin M antibodies of adults reacted with capsid polypeptides VP 1, VP 2, and/or VP 3 of the viruses mentioned above. The reactions with VP 2 and/or VP 3 were often stronger than with VP 1. IgM antibodies from sera of newborns infected by echovirus 11 reacted with VP 1 and VP 2/3 of echovirus 11 and also with VP 2 and VP 3 of poliovirus 2. Preabsorption experiments indicate that cross-reactive IgG antibodies react with epitopes of VP 1 not present on the surface of intact virus particles. The results from the immunoblot technique were compared to data from microneutralization tests and M-antibody capture radioimmunoassays.

In the routine laboratory examination of specimens of faeces and urine, from time to time certain Gram-negative bacilli belonging to many different groups are encountered, which morphologically show no appreciable differences from the Gram-negative bacilli of the coli-typhoid group, but which however ferment the usual carbohydrate media employed in differentiation with the formation of acid only. Some ferment lactose quickly, others more slowly, and many not at all, but as with the other media no gas is formed. These organisms might be considered as belonging to the so-called B. coli anaerogenes group— a somewhat loose term which might include many different strains, some perhaps related to the colon group, others belonging to and related to the group of dysentery bacilli, and others showing no relationship to either.

Weekly data from 7 years (2004–2010) of primary-care counts of acute respiratory illnesses (ARIs) and local weather readings were used to adjust a multivariate time-series vector error correction model with covariates (VECMX). Weather variables were included through a partial least squares index that consisted of weekly minimum temperature (coefficient = − 0·26), weekly median of relative humidity (coefficient = 0·22) and weekly accumulated rainfall (coefficient = 0·5). The VECMX long-term test reported significance for trend (0·01, P = 0·00) and weather index (1·69, P = 0·00). Short-term relationship was influenced by seasonality. The model accounted for 76% of the variability in the series (adj. R 2 = 0·76), and the co-integration diagnostics confirmed its appropriateness. The procedure is easily reproducible by researchers in all climates, can be used to identify relevant weather fluctuations affecting the incidence of ARIs, and could help clarify the influence of contact rates on the spread of these diseases.

Among pathogens shed by cattle, Escherichia coli O157 ranks highest in those causing human illness. To date, prevalence and risk factors for O157 shedding have been assessed in feedlot, but not dairy cattle. The study aimed to determine prevalence levels and risk factors for O157 atypical enteropathogenic E. coli (aEPEC) and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) shedding in dairy cattle. Dairy cattle (n = 899) within the first 21 days of lactation were sampled monthly over the course of 1 year, on three dry lot dairies surrounding Fort Collins, CO. During visits multiple factors were measured (disease history, pharmaceutical use, climate measures, etc.), and cattle faeces were collected and assessed for presence of O157 and virulence genes. Logistic regression analysis was performed using O157 outcomes and measured factors. Prevalence of O157 aEPEC was 3·7%, while EHEC was 3·0%. Many potential risk factors were highly correlated, and used to build separate multivariable models. An increase in humidity was positively associated with aEPEC, while fluid faeces and history of disease showed a negative association. Meanwhile, an increase in temperature and antibiotic treatment was positively associated with EHEC, while more days in milk, higher hygiene score and cow contact were negatively associated. These results may guide mitigation strategies that reduce O157 shedding, and contamination of the human food chain.

The difficulties encountered in distinguishing pneumococci from streptococci, particularly S. salivarius, have been enumerated and the morphological and cultural similarities between the two groups of organisms have been pointed out. If bile-solubility is taken as the distinguishing mark of a pneumo-coccus it will be found that there are a large number of bile-insoluble streptococci commonly met with in the respiratory tract and sometimes playing an important part in disease, which bear very strong resemblances to pneumococci both in shape, colony, and broth culture. The similarities are specially confusing in mixed cultures on agar plates and a number of the routine tests applied quite failed to distinguish them. There naturally follows the corollary that some of these tests fall wide of the mark, and they should therefore be left out of the bacteriologist's armamentarium when the identification of pneumococci is under consideration. Morphological and cultural properties are insufficient guides to species, while the same is true of the widely recommended tests of inulin fermentation and capsule formation. Not only do some pneumococci fail to ferment inulin, but so many strains of S. salivarius show active inulin fermentation that, in the present series of organisms taken at random, the incidence of inulin fermenters amongst S. salivarius is actually higher than amongst pneumococci. Capsules were found in all the strains of streptococci in which they were sought and in all the pneumococci investigated, so that encapsulation may be regarded as a property common to members of both species.

The aim of this study was to explore the frequency and distribution of gene mutations that are related to isoniazid (INH) and rifampin (RIF)-resistance in the strains of the multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) in Beijing, China. In this retrospective study, the genotypes of 173 MDR-TB strains were analysed by spoligotyping. The katG, inhA genes and the promoter region of inhA, in which genetic mutations confer INH resistance; and the rpoB gene, in which genetic mutations confer RIF resistance, were sequenced. The percentage of resistance-associated nucleotide alterations among the strains of different genotypes was also analysed. In total, 90.8% (157/173) of the MDR strains belonged to the Beijing genotype. Population characteristics were not significantly different among the strains of different genotypes. In total, 50.3% (87/173) strains had mutations at codon S315T of katG; 16.8% (29/173) of strains had mutations in the inhA promoter region; of them, 5.5% (15/173) had point mutations at −15 base (C→T) of the inhA promoter region. In total, 86.7% (150/173) strains had mutations at rpoB gene; of them, 40% (69/173) strains had mutations at codon S531L of rpoB. The frequency of mutations was not significantly higher in Beijing genotypic MDR strains than in non-Beijing genotypes. Beijing genotypic MDR-TB strains were spreading in Beijing and present a major challenge to TB control in this region. A high prevalence of katG Ser315Thr, inhA promoter region (−15C→T) and rpoB (S531L) mutations was observed. Molecular diagnostics based on gene mutations was a useful method for rapid detection of MDR-TB in Beijing, China.

Small colony (SC) strains of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides from contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and from goats were compared with large colony (LC) strains of so-called M. mycoides subsp. mycoides from goats and sheep by means of a cross-protection test in which mice were challenged with M. mycoides subsp. capri.

Of 13 LC strains, all gave partial cross-protection, and 11 were shown to be more closely related than four SC strains to subspecies capri. In a further experiment, six SC strains – three from CBPP and three from goats – all gave weak partial cross-protection against subspecies capri.

This study investigated whether exposure to inactivated rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) can produce an antigenic response in rabbits and protect them from a subsequent challenge with virulent virus. The aim was to determine if the spreading of baits containing RHDV, which is a common management practice in New Zealand to reduce rabbit numbers, could result in protective immunity in wild rabbits. RHDV was inactivated by ultraviolet (UV) light using an electronic UV crosslinker with a UV dose of 168·48 W-s/cm2 and a UV intensity of 0·0078 W/cm2. Two groups of four rabbits were then inoculated with inactivated virus via oral and intramuscular routes. Rabbits were monitored for 30 days post-inoculation and then challenged orally with virulent virus. No rabbit exposed to inactivated RHDV developed clinical signs of RHD or had antibodies at day 30 post-infection and all animals died within 82 h after challenge with virulent virus. No antibodies were detected at the time of death. These findings suggest that exposure to virus completely inactivated by UV light in the field or on baits will not protect rabbits against challenge with virulent virus.

The air of a subdivided surgical ward was sampled by the exposure of culture plates for 12 hr. periods 5 days a week.

A number of ‘broadcasts’ of airborne Staphylococcus aureus were observed; many of these were of very short duration. A single person could be recognized as responsible for 22 of the 33 broadcasts; in all cases dispersal seemed to be from carrier sites rather than from infected lesions.

There was little spread of the staphylococci between the 4 rooms of the ward. The frequency of nasal carriage of tetracycline-resistant S. aureus increased from 6·2% in patients examined during their 1st week to 13·2% in those examined in their 4th week in the ward; the rate for all S. aureus declined from 31·3 to 26·4%.

It is suggested that the long-period exposure of culture plates for the collection of airborne staphylococci may be useful in monitoring some aspects of hospital hygiene.

In most European countries the geographical distribution of simple goiter is known from the number of men who are rejected on this account for military service(1,2). There are no similar figures for Britain but what is known about its probable incidence has been discussed by Hirsch(2) and by Berry(3) and in a more recent paper, where it was also shown that there was a geographical distribution of the deaths from “exophthalmic goiter” as recorded in the Registrar General's reports(5). There were still many gaps in our knowledge, especially as regards simple goiter, but there appeared to be some tendency for deaths from “exophthalmic goiter” to be more frequent in areas where goiter was endemic, thought this was contrary to the evidence of most parts of the world where goiter was seriously endemic.

We studied the seroprevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and GB virus-C (GBV-C) infections in 348 Siberian natives who lived in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia. Of 348 samples studied, the seroprevalence of HBsAg and anti-HBs were 11·8% (41 of 348 samples) and 35·9% (125 of 348 samples), respectively. The prevalence of HCV infection was 1·4% (5 of 348 samples), and that of GBV-C RNA, using RT–PCR methods, was 7·5% (26 of 348 samples). In Siberia, the prevalences of HBV and GBV-C infections were about tenfold higher than those in Japan. The prevalence of HBsAg in subjects under 50 years of age was significantly higher than that in those over 50 years old (P<0·05). Because HBV infection is highly endemic in Siberia, we propose that the community-based mass immunization must be conducted as soon as possible in this area.

A total of 292 children's sera and 706 antenatal sera from different parts of England were tested for the presence of poliovirus neutralizing antibodies. Little variation was found between different areas and types of community, but a lower proportion of the 5–14 year old children had antibody than younger children and young adult women. The proportion of the young population with antibody, and the current acceptance rates for oral poliovirus vaccine are barely satisfactory.

In his book, Floating Matter of the Air, John Tyndall (Tyndall, p. 262) quotes from Robert Boyle's ‘Essay on the Pathological Part of Physik’ ‘that he who thoroughly understands the nature of ferments and fermentations shall probably … give a fair account of divers phenomena of several diseases, which will perhaps be never properly understood without an insight into the doctrine of fermentations'. It was more than a century and a half before the first part of this suggestion was fulfilled, after which the unravelling of the causes of infective diseases proceeded rapidly. In 1836 de la Tour and, almost simultaneously, Schwann (Tyndall, p. 7) discovered, in yeast, the agent of fermentation as a living organism which reproduced itself in endless succession. Schwann also observed that putrefaction in meat broth did not set in if this was kept in contact, not with ordinary air, but with air which had been previously brought to a high temperature.

This matched case-control study investigated the risk factors for sporadic Salmonella Infantis infection in 263 affected children and 263 age-, gender- and neighbourhood-matched controls. Information about exposure to potential risk factors was obtained via telephone interview and evaluated by conditional logistic regression analysis. Age groups ⩽1 year (n = 77) and >1 year (n = 186) were analysed separately. Of those aged ⩽1 year, breastfeeding was a significant protective factor against infection [matched odds ratio (mOR) 0·24, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0·10–0·59, P < 0·01]. In the older group, consumption of eggs (mOR 1·87, 95% CI 1·00–3·49, P = 0·05) was a significant risk factor and thawing chicken in water (mOR 2·55, 95% CI 0·94–6·91, P = 0·07) was borderline risk factor, while consumption of carrots (mOR 0·46, 95% CI 0·26–0·83, P < 0·01), drinking tap water (mOR 0·44, 95% CI 0·22–0·85, P = 0·02), religious lifestyle (mOR 0·40, 95% CI 0·21–0·74, P < 0·01) and having a high number of children in the household (mOR 0·72, 95% CI 0·58–0·88, P < 0·01) were significant protective factors. Consumers should avoid eating undercooked eggs and food handlers should be educated regarding proper handling and cooking of eggs. Breastfeeding should be strongly encouraged by public health authorities. The public must be educated on stringent hygiene practices, especially proper cooking of eggs to reduce infection rates.

The clinical application of the principles of epidemiological research has become fashionable. Three recent textbooks carry the words ‘Clinical Epidemiology’ in their titles (Feinstein, 1985; Sackett, Haynes & Tugwell, 1985; Weiss, 1986), and a venerable journal has recently changed its name to this effect (Feinstein & Spitzer, 1988). Deans of medical schools, Government Health Officials and editorialists pay tribute to the new science which is expected to steer the medical profession of the third millennium.

Cervids represent a mammal group which plays an important role in the maintenance of ecological balance. Recent studies have highlighted the role of these species as reservoirs for several arthropods-borne pathogens. Globally, hemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are emerging or remerging bacteria that attach to red blood cells of several mammals species causing hemolytic anaemia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and assess the phylogenetic positioning of Mycoplasma ovis in free-ranging deer from Brazil. Using a polymerase chain reaction targeting the 16S rRNA region, 18 (40%) out of 45 sampled deer were positive to M. ovis. Among the nine sequences analysed, four distinct genotypes were identified. The sequences detected in the present study were closely related to sequences previously identified in deer from Brazil and the USA. On the other hand, the Neighbour-Net network analysis showed that the human-associated M. ovis genotypes were related to genotypes detected in sheep and goats. The present study shows, for the first time, the occurrence of M. ovis in Mazama gouazoubira and Mazama bororo deer species, expanding the knowledge on the hosts harbouring this haemoplasma species. Once several deer species have your population in decline, additional studies are needed to evaluate the pathogenicity of M. ovis among deer populations around the world and assess its potential as reservoir hosts to human infections.

In January, 1923, a small outbreak of dysentery occurred amongst the nursing staff of a certain institution. In all there were six cases. Only one case, the first which occurred, showed symptoms of any great severity. In the remaining five cases the symptoms were slight, and the patients were able to return to duty m seven or eight days from the commencement of the illness.

Pig farmers and veterinarians have high prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) due to the occupational livestock exposure, while few reported this association on slaughterhouse workers. We conducted this cross-sectional study to explore the phenotypic and molecular characteristics of S. aureus and MRSA in slaughterhouse pig-related workers and control workers in Guangdong Province, China. Participants were interviewed and provided two nasal swabs. Swabs were tested for S. aureus, and isolates were further tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, virulence genes and multi-locus sequence typing. Compared with control workers, pig-related workers have significantly higher prevalence of MRSA carriage (adjusted odd ratio (aOR) 3·70, 95% CI 1·63–8·40). The proportions of MRSA resistant to clindamycin, erythromycin, tetracycline or chloromycetin were significantly higher in pig-related workers than in control workers. The predominant phenotypes of S. aureus were resistant to penicillin, clindamycin, erythromycin and tetracycline. Three MRSA CC9 isolates with livestock-associated characteristics (resistance to tetracycline and absence of immune evasion cluster (IEC) genes) were detected in pig-related workers but not in control workers. For human-associated CCs (CC7, CC59, CC6, and CC188), there was no significant difference in IEC profile or antimicrobial resistance between the groups. These findings reveal that there may be a potential risk for livestock-to-human transmission of LA-MRSA and human-to-human transmission of human-associated MRSA.