In a multi-laboratory trial, minerals-modified glutamate medium (MMGM) was compared with lauryl tryptose lactose broth (LTLB) in the multiple tube method for the enumeration of coliform organisms, including Escherichia coli, in water. Samples of raw and chlorinated waters yielded a total of 2313 positive tube-reactions with MMGM and 2174 with LTLB. These were interpreted either as E. coli; other coliform organisms; or as false positive reactions. The results at first reading (18 or 24 h) and at 48 h have been analysed statistically in terms of (i) most probable numbers of coliform organisms; (ii) positive reactions and their interpretation; and (iii) whether or not the sample yielded any E. coli or other coliform organisms. All three analyses indicated the same trends. For the detection of E. coli in raw waters LTLB was better than MMGM at 18–24 h, but MMGM was better at 48 h with waters containing small numbers of coliform organisms; for raw waters with greater numbers of organisms, both media performed equally well. Analysis of a subset of samples read at both 18 and 24 h indicated that the superiority of LTLB over MMGM with raw waters disappeared by 24 h. For chlorinated waters, LTLB yielded more positive gas reactions at 18–24 h, but fewer of these were E. coli than with MMGM; at 48 h MMGM was clearly better than LTLB for total coliform organisms including E. coli – especially if the numbers were small. MMGM therefore remains the medium of choice for the detection of E. coli as an indicator of faecal contamination of chlorinated drinking water supplies. It is also better for the detection of small numbers of E. coli in other waters.

In France, surveillance of bronchiolitis is based on a pilot network of hospital emergency departments. The study was a 1-year observational study (2007–2008) carried out in a central region of metropolitan France. The hospitalization rate for bronchiolitis was 17·7/1000 children aged <1 year and the estimated prevalence of bronchiolitis ranged from 17·7% to 34·4% in children aged <1 year. Such a network constitutes a valuable tool to estimate the dynamic and the burden of infant bronchiolitis.

We used a database of 248 659 births, with follow-up to subsequent disease, in the Oxford record linkage archive (1979–1999) to study the influence of family, maternal, and perinatal factors on subsequent hospital admission for meningococcal, Haemophilus, and enteroviral meningitis in the children. In this summary, we report key findings that were significant in multivariate analysis. Meningococcal meningitis was significantly associated with maternal smoking [odds ratio (OR) 2·1, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·2–3·7]. Haemophilus meningitis was associated with having older siblings (e.g. second child compared to first-born, OR 3·3, 95% CI 2·0–5·6). Enteroviral meningitis was associated with low birth weight (OR 2·2, 95% CI 1·3–3·6) and male sex (OR 1·7, 95% CI 1·2–2·3). The mothers of six of the 312 children with enteroviral meningitis had previously had enteroviral meningitis themselves. We concluded that several maternal characteristics influence the risk of these types of meningitis.

In this review of 66 outbreaks of infectious disease in schools in England and Wales between 1979–88, 27 were reported from independent and 39 from maintained schools. Altogether, over 8000 children and nearly 500 adults were affected. Most of the outbreaks investigated were due to gastrointestinal infections which affected about 5000 children; respiratory infections affected a further 2000 children. Fifty-two children and seven adults were admitted to hospital and one child with measles died. Vaccination policies and use of immunoglobulin for control and prevention of outbreaks in schools have been discussed.

A field survey conducted amongst children in a semi-rural area of Ceylon has revealed a high rate of Schick negative conversion early in life. A high carrier rate of C. diphtheriae in cutaneous ulcers which probably accounts for this early Schick conversion has been detected. The role of cutaneous diphtheria and that of non-toxigenic organisms in the acquisition of natural immunity to the disease is discussed.

The performance of the rodenticide 5-p-chlorophenyl silatrane at 0.5% in a wholemeal flour/pinhead oatmeal/corn oil bait was compared with that of zinc phosphide at 3% in the same base in poison treatments carried out against urban infestations of the house mouse (Mus musculus L.). Each poison treatment was conducted for 1 day and after 3 days' pre-baiting. The success of the treatments was assessed from census baitings conducted before and after treatment. Treatment success varied considerably with both poisons used but in general 5-p-chlorophenyl silatrane proved to be at least as effective as zinc phosphide, a commonly used acute rodenticide for the control of mice.

We used Western Australian emergency department data linked to hospital morbidity, death and microbiology data to describe the bacteriology of pneumonia according to age. The ‘atypical’ organisms and viruses were not assessed. A total of 6908 patients over a 3-year period were given an emergency department diagnosis of pneumonia, 76·9% were admitted and 6·3% died in hospital. Blood was cultured from 52·9% of patients with 6·4% growing potential pathogens. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common organism isolated and accounted for 92% of pathogens in those aged <15 years. Isolation of Enterobacteriaceae species tended to increase with age and accounted for around 25% of isolates from the elderly. Sputum was cultured from 25·3% of patients and bacteria were isolated from 30·3% of samples, commonly Haemophilus influenzae and S. pneumoniae. Isolates from sputum showed no distinct trend across age groups. These patterns question the value of routine blood and sputum cultures and have implications for empiric therapy for the elderly.

1. A study has been made of different types of coliform bacteria with particular reference to (a) their ability to ferment lactose in MacConkey broth at different temperatures, and (b) the effect of using different temperatures of incubation for the indol, methyl-red, V.P., and citrate tests.

2. It was found that 97% of the cultures of Bact. coli (indol positive, methyl-red positive, V.P. negative, citrate negative) examined could ferment lactose with production of acid and gas between 40 and 44° C. The number was not appreciably reduced at 45° C. but was markedly reduced at 46° C. 28% of the cultures of Bact. coli (indol negative, methyl-red positive, V.P. negative, citrate negative) and 15% of Bact. aerogenes (indol negative, methyl-red negative, V.P. positive, citrate positive) were found to be positive at 44° C.

3. The adoption of a temperature of incubation of 30°C. for the V.P. test as advocated by Levine (1941) and the use of O'Meara's test showed that many cultures previously regarded as unable to produce acetylmethylcarbinol were in fact able to do so. Employing a temperature of 30°C. for 5, or in some cases 7, days for the methyl-red test, it was found that with nearly all the cultures tested there was an inverse correlation between the results of the methyl-red test and those of the V.P. test. With these modifications in technique some cultures originally designated as Intermediate type I were found to have reactions corresponding with those of Bact. aerogenes type I. Similarly, many cultures originally classified as Intermediate type II should have been typed as Bact. aerogenes type II.

4. It was found that all cultures of Intermediate type I classified as such by the new technique were incapable of using the nitrogen of uric acid for growth, but that the majority produced hydrogen sulphide. Cultures of Bact. aerogenes type II, on the other hand, grew well in uric acid medium, but produced no hydrogen sulphide.

The investigation described in this paper was carried out by the Freshwater Biological Association, as part of the programme of the Water Pollution Research Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The paper is published by permission of the Department.

We conducted a prospective birth cohort study in rural Sudan to assess measles virus (MV)-specific antibody levels at different time points in infancy. Dried blood spots were collected on filter paper at birth (cord blood) and at ages 6, 12 and 24 months (heel-prick). Maternally derived MV-specific antibody levels were high in cord blood samples, but at the age of 6 months had dropped below cut-off values in half of the infants. By extrapolation it was concluded that the current Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI) target age for measles vaccination of 9 months was an appropriate choice for this area. At the age of 24 months acquired MV-specific antibodies were detected in 65–85% of the cohort, which corresponded well with the 79% of infants reported to be vaccinated by this age. This study demonstrates the usefulness of filter paper blood samples for seroepidemiological studies in developing countries.

During a recent epidemic of poliomyelitis three viruses isolated (one Type 1 and two Type 2) elicited both Type 1 and Type 2 CF and precipitating antibodies in the patients whilst only the homotypic neutralizing antibodies were present. These viruses inoculated into animals produced specific CF and neutralizing antibodies, but precipitating antibodies to both types were present in a significant number of animals. These findings suggest that certain polioviruses have complement-fixing and precipitating antigens common to both Type 1 and Type 2 viruses.

We would like to thank our colleagues in the Virus Research Unit for their helpful advice and criticism and Dr J. Hampton (Poliomyelitis Inst., Johannesburg) for the concentrated Type 1 poliovirus vaccine.

The susceptibility to antimicrobial agents of 569 salmonella isolates collected in 1977–8 from patients in hospitals in Rome was tested. Fifty-nine per cent of all isolates were resistant to one or more antimicrobials. Resistance was most common to sulphathiazole, tetracycline, streptomycin, whereas colistin, gentamicin, tobramycin, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole and nalidixic acid were the most active in vitro.

Multiple resistance was most frequently found in strains of Salmonella wien and S. typhimurium (94% and 38% respectively).

A significant change in the resistance pattern of S. wien was observed between 1977 and 1978, with a significant increase of susceptibility to some antimicrobials in 1978.

Twenty-one R-plasmids transmissible to E. coli K12 were derived from 46 resistant strains of S. typhimurum.

1. The susceptibility of mice of different ages to intramuscular, intraperitoneal, and oral administration of EMC virus, and to intracerebral and intramuscular injection of both the Texas and the Connecticut-5 strains of Coxsackie virus have been studied. In all cases susceptibility decreases with age. The development of resistance to a given virus may vary in rate and extent according to the route by which the virus is given.

2. The multiplication of small amounts of EMC virus in muscle, and of the Texas and Connecticut-5 strains of Coxsackie virus in both muscle and brain, has been studied in mice of different ages. A very high degree of multiplication of all three viruses was observed in both muscle and brain of young mice, but no significant multiplication of the EMC virus in older muscle could be detected with these small inocula, nor of either of the Coxsackie strains in older muscle or brain.

3. Multiplication of EMC virus in young mice was shown to take place within the muscle itself. Haemagglutination tests showed that less haemagglutinin, as well as less infective virus, was produced in the muscles of older mice following the injection of small amounts of virus.

4. Multiplication of EMC and GDVII viruses could be demonstrated even in older mice if a sufficiently large amount of virus was inoculated initially.

5. The rapid initial disappearance of infectivity from the site of inoculation was shown to be mainly due to dispersal of inoculated virus around the body.

6. The simplest hypothesis which will accommodate the observed data on virus multiplication and on the development of resistance with age appears to be that the accessibility of the host cell to virus decreases with age. We found no evidence that the ability of the host cell to support virus multiplication declines with age.

This work was done in the Department of Zoology, Oxford University. One of us was in receipt of a Medical Research Council training grant. The expenses of the research were met by a grant from the Nuffield Foundation, to whom we should like to express our gratitude.

We argue that the spread of unhealthy behaviour shows marked similarities with infectious diseases. It is therefore interesting and challenging to use infectious disease methodologies for studying the spread and control of unhealthy behaviour. This would be a great addition to current methods, because it allows taking into account the dynamics of individual interactions and the social environment at large. In particular, the application of individual-based modelling holds great promise to address some major public health questions.

Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis have been recognized by the WHO as ‘Neglected Diseases’. Minimal attention has been paid to the spatial and temporal distribution of disease incidence patterns. Using disease notification data, we detected spatio-temporal clusters of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis across three time periods: (i) 1997–2000, (ii) 2001–2004, (iii) 2005–2008. There was substantial variation in the geographical location and timing of recurrent cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis clusters. Statistically significant (P < 0·05) giardiasis clusters tended to occur in predominantly urban areas with little apparent seasonal influence, while statistically significant cryptosporidiosis clusters were detected in spring, in areas with high livestock land use. The location and timing of cryptosporidiosis clusters suggest an influence of livestock production practices, while urban exposures and host behaviour are likely to influence giardiasis clusters. This approach provides a resource-efficient method for public health authorities to prioritize future research needs and areas for intervention.

This study investigated the extent to which proximity to cattle and weather events in Alberta predispose human populations to E. coli O157 disease. Cases of human E. coli O157 infection in Alberta between 2004 and 2011 were obtained from the province's Communicable Disease Reporting System and Discharge Abstract Database. Regression models based on spatial area incorporated human infection data with livestock and weather covariates. A variety of regression models were applied (i.e. least squares, spatial lag/error, Poisson, negative binomial) to test the most appropriate approach. Ratios for the total number of calves, bulls and beef cows to human population were highlighted as significant cattle density variables in all final best-fitting models. Weather variables were not significant in final regression models averaged over the full study period. Our results provide evidence of a significant association between measures of cattle density and human E. coli O157 disease in Alberta.

It is paramount to understand the epidemiology of chronic hepatitis B to inform national policies on vaccination and screening/testing as well as cost-effectiveness studies. However, information on the national (Scottish) prevalence of chronic hepatitis B by ethnic group is lacking. To estimate the number of people with chronic hepatitis B in Scotland in 2009 by ethnicity, gender and age, the test data from virology laboratories in the four largest cities in Scotland were combined with estimates of the ethnic distribution of the Scottish population. Ethnicity in both the test data and the Scottish population was derived using a name-based ethnicity classification software (OnoMAP; Publicprofiler Ltd, UK). For 2009, we estimated 8720 [95% confidence interval (CI) 7490–10 230] people aged ⩾15 years were living with chronic hepatitis B infection in Scotland. This corresponds to 0·2% (95% CI 0·17–0·24) of the Scottish population aged ⩾15 years. Although East and South Asians make up a small proportion of the Scottish population, they make up 44% of the infected population. In addition, 75% of those infected were aged 15–44 years with almost 60% male. This study quantifies for the first time on a national level the burden of chronic hepatitis B infection by ethnicity, gender and age. It confirms the importance of promoting and targeting ethnic minority groups for hepatitis B testing.

Settings of fingerprint-type analysing computer software were optimized for analysis of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns. Under the lowest values of parameters, maximum value of similarities calculated using the Dice coefficient were obtained between PFGE patterns from one EHEC strain on the same gel when reference lanes for calibration of distortions during electrophoresis were set to every fourth lane. PFGE patterns of 15 EHEC strains on different gels were investigated. Similarity values calculated using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson correlation) were significantly higher than those using the Dice coefficient with optimal values of parameters determined by the program (P<0·01). When PFGE patterns of 45 EHEC strains were analysed by the computer program, EHEC strains from one mass outbreak and three intra-family outbreaks were each clustered and the similarity values within the clusters were >90% using Pearson correlation.

1. Apart from strain identification of V. cholerae for epidemiological studies by phage-typing and determination of their S-R dissociation cholera bacteriophages may be utilized for other valuable diagnostic aids in the laboratory.

2. The universal susceptibility of V. cholerae strains to group IV cholera bacteriophage and universal lyso-resistance of El Tor vibrios to it provide a specific method for differentiating between the two species of vibrios. This test is simple and convenient for routine diagnostie use and should be of special value for identifying non-haemolytic El Tor vibrios, which are otherwise liable to be missed.

3. The marked insensitivity of the NAG vibrios to cholera bacteriophages, particularly their total insusceptibility to the phage of group II, enables these strains to be readily distinguishable from V. cholerae.

4. Cholera bacteriophages which are stable on maintenance and storage in the laboratory can conveniently be supplied absorbed on filter disks for the use of the smaller laboratories.