It would appear from casual references in literature that the seals and their relatives are quite commonly infested with certain mites which occur in the nasal passages or even in the bronchial tubes. Although there are several such references, apparently in but three have the mites been named. In these three cases they have been referred to the Gamasid (or Dermanyssid) genus Halarachne. The first species, Halarachne halichoeri Allman, from Halichoerus gryphus, an Atlantic seal, was described in 1847; the second, H. americana Banks, from Monarchus tropicalis, which is also an Atlantic species, was described in 1896; the third, H. otariae Steding, from Otaria californica (which is known to American mammalogists as Zalophus cali-fornianus), was described in 1923. The specimens upon which this last species was based were obtained in Germany, although the host is a native of the west coast of North America.

1. The width and length of eggs of Haemonchus contortus, Cooperia curticei, Trichostrongylus axei, T. vitrinus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Chabertia ovina, Oesophagostomum venulosum and Ostertagia spp. were measured.

2. Frequency distributions of the linear dimensions of the eggs of each species are given, together with the frequencies calculated on the assumption that the distributions are normal.

3. A method of species differentiation based on egg measurements is described, the method being based upon the statistical chances of eggs of different species falling into particular size classes.

4. The application of the method and the construction of a classifying scale are described.

Experimental intraperitoneal Taenia crassiceps cysticercosis in mice exhibits distinct genetical, immunological and endocrinological features possibly resulting from the complex interactive network of their physiological systems. Very notable is the tendency of parasites to grow faster in hosts of the female sex. It is also remarkable in the feminization process that the infection induces in chronically infected male mice, characterized by their estrogenization, deandrogenization and loss of sexual and aggressive patterns of behaviour. The proto-oncogene c-fos is a sex steroid-regulated transcription factor gene, expressed basally and upon stimulation by many organisms. In the CNS of rodents, c-fos is found expressed in association to sexual stimulation and to various immunological and stressful events. Hence, we suspected that changes in c-fos expression in the brain could be involved in the feminization of the infected male mice. Indeed, it was found that c-fos expression increased at different times during infection in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, less so in the preoptic area and cortex, and not in several other organs. The significant and distinctive regional changes of c-fos in the CNS of infected mice indicate that the brain of the host senses intraperitoneal cysticercosis and may also announce its active participation in the regulation of the host–parasite relationship. Possibly, the host's CNS activity is involved in the network that regulates the estrogenization and deandrogenization observed in the chronically infected male mice, as well as in the behavioural and immunological peculiarities observed in this parasitic infection.

In developing countries, estimates of the prevalence and diversity of Leptospira infections in livestock, an important but neglected zoonotic pathogen and cause of livestock productivity loss, are lacking. In Madagascar, abattoir sampling of cattle and pigs demonstrated a prevalence of infection of 20% in cattle and 5% in pigs by real-time PCR. In cattle, amplification and sequencing of the Leptospira-specific lfb1 gene revealed novel genotypes, mixed infections of two or more Leptospira species and evidence for potential transmission between small mammals and cattle. Sequencing of the secY gene demonstrated genetic similarities between Leptospira detected in Madagascar and, as yet, uncultured Leptospira strains identified in Tanzania, Reunion and Brazil. Detection of Leptospira DNA in the same animal was more likely in urine samples or pooled samples from four kidney lobes relative to samples collected from a single kidney lobe, suggesting an effect of sampling method on detection. In pigs, no molecular typing of positive samples was possible. Further research into the epidemiology of livestock leptospirosis in developing countries is needed to inform efforts to reduce human infections and to improve livestock productivity.

Bibliometric methods were used to analyse the major research trends, themes and topics over the last 30 years in the parasitology discipline. The tools used were SciMAT, VOSviewer and SWIFT-Review in conjunction with the parasitology literature contained in the MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus and Dimensions databases. The analyses show that the major research themes are dynamic and continually changing with time, although some themes identified based on keywords such as malaria, nematode, epidemiology and phylogeny are consistently referenced over time. We note the major impact of countries like Brazil has had on the literature of parasitology research. The increase in recent times of research productivity on ‘antiparasitics’ is discussed, as well as the change in emphasis on different antiparasitic drugs and insecticides over time. In summary, innovation in parasitology is global, extensive, multidisciplinary, constantly evolving and closely aligned with the availability of technology.

Cement gland protein in male and inseminated female individuals of an acanthocephalan parasite of fish, Pomphorhynchus laevis (Müller, 1776), was localized by immunohistochemistry using an antibody specific for cement protein. Male P. laevis possess 3 pairs of round to oval cement glands ranging from 0·5 to 0·9 mm in length and from 0·3 to 0·7 mm in width. Each gland has an outer portion containing nuclear fragments and other cellular organelles surrounding a space for storage of gland products. Very little work has been carried out on the nature of the cement gland secretions. We have previously reported that the major component of cement is a protein with molecular weight of 23 kDa; in fresh glands it is white in colour. Immunohistochemical studies herein reported were carried out using a polyclonal antibody raised against purified P. laevis p23 cement protein (anti-p23PL). Localization of p23 cement protein at the light microscope level, by means of the anti-p23PL antibody, shows that p23 is present within the cytoplasmic layer of the gland as well as in the gland duct lumen. Interestingly, the p23 cement protein was also identifiable at the posterior ends of females retaining the cap. Positivity to anti-p23PL antibody was obtained not only in the external part of the copulatory cap, but also within the vaginal tract and at the base of the uterine duct. Thus, we report herein the first photographic evidence that the copulatory cap is not a simple gonopore lid but it is really an intravaginal plug.

This study aimed to evaluate associations between toxoplasmosis and psychiatric disorders in Taiwan based on the National Health Insurance Research Database, Taiwan (1997–2013). Patients newly diagnosed with toxoplasmosis formed the case group (n = 259), and the control group included propensity-score matched patients without toxoplasmosis (n = 1036). The primary outcome was incidence of psychiatric disorders. Cox proportional hazards regression and stratified analyses were performed to examine risk of developing specific psychiatric disorders between patients with and without toxoplasmosis. Patients with toxoplasmosis had significantly higher incidence of psychiatric disorders than those without toxoplasmosis (P = 0.016). A significant difference was found in numbers of psychiatric disorders between the two groups during 14 years of follow-up (log-rank P < 0.001). Those with toxoplasmosis had significantly higher risk of bipolar disorder [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR = 3.60, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.07, 7.26), depression (aHR = 4.94, 95% CI = 2.15, 11.80) and anxiety (aHR = 5.36, 95% CI = 2.98, 25.88), but no significant between-group differences were found for schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. In conclusion, the present nationwide population-based analysis revealed that Toxoplasma gondii infection in Taiwan significantly increases the risk for developing bipolar disorder, depression and anxiety, but not for schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders.

The genus Eucampsipoda was created by Kolenati in 1857 for Eucampsipoda hyrtlii, the common parasite of Rousettus aegyptiacus, and Nycteribia fitzingeri Kol., 1856, which he later considered as synonym with N. aegyptia Macquart, 1851. In his paper of 1863 Kolenati gives illustrations of E. hyrtlii, but not of E. aegyptia as he had in the meantime lost his specimens. Macquart's description does not permit the recognition of the species, and it is even doubtful whether he was dealing with an Eucampsipoda at all. Speiser (1901) adds only a few details to Kolenati's description of E. hyrtlii, but introduces an unfortunate complication by incorrectly identifying specimens from Burma and Sumatra as E. hyrtlii. Later (1908) Speiser identified specimens from the Comoro Islands as E. hyrtlii, but this record has also become doubtful, as will be shown later. Scott (1914) accepts Speiser's identification of the Indonesian material as E. hyrtlii, and describes and figures a female specimen from Ceylon as E. hyrtlii, which is in fact E. latisternum Schuurm. Stekh. Scott (1925) identified specimens from South Africa as E. hyrtlii which on re-exaniination proved to belong to a new species. He also mentions Madagascar as a locality for E. hyrtlii without giving details. The distribution of E. hyrtlii was thus apparently extremely wide, throughout Africa, from the Cape Province to Egypt and beyond into Palestine, Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma and Sumatra.

The present gold standard of the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is pentavalent antimonials either sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam) or meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime), These drugs are quite toxic. They are given by injection and usually administered intramuscularly or intravenously for three weeks or intralesionally for seven or more weeks. That is why the successful introduction of radiofrequency-induced heat therapy using a Thermomed™ 1.8 instrument administered in a single application, with minimal toxic effects, is so important for the treatment of CL.

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, a prevalent infection related to abortion, ocular diseases and encephalitis in immuno-compromised individuals. In the untreatable (and life-long) chronic stage of toxoplasmosis, parasitophorous vacuoles (PVs, containing T. gondii tachyzoites) transform into tissue cysts, containing slow-dividing bradyzoite forms. While acute-stage infection with tachyzoites involves global rearrangement of the host cell cytoplasm, focused on favouring tachyzoite replication, the cytoplasmic architecture of cells infected with cysts had not been described. Here, we characterized (by fluorescence and electron microscopy) the redistribution of host cell structures around T. gondii cysts, using a T. gondii strain (EGS) with high rates of spontaneous cystogenesis in vitro. Microtubules and intermediate filaments (but not actin microfilaments) formed a ‘cage’ around the cyst, and treatment with taxol (to inhibit microtubule dynamics) favoured cystogenesis. Mitochondria, which appeared adhered to the PV membrane, were less closely associated with the cyst wall. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) profiles were intimately associated with folds in the cyst wall membrane. However, the Golgi complex was not preferentially localized relative to the cyst, and treatment with tunicamycin or brefeldin A (to disrupt Golgi or ER function, respectively) had no significant effect on cystogenesis. Lysosomes accumulated around cysts, while early and late endosomes were more evenly distributed in the cytoplasm. The endocytosis tracer HRP (but not BSA or transferrin) reached bradyzoites after uptake by infected host cells. These results suggest that T. gondii cysts reorganize the host cell cytoplasm, which may fulfil specific requirements of the chronic stage of infection.

Among Helminth material collected in the Sudan by the late Dr A. J. Chalmers, I have found some eight or nine mounted specimens of a Cestode, from the intestine of Gyps rüppelli, which has not, so far as I am aware, yet been described, and which apparently belongs to a new genus.

The mode of appearance and assembly of cyst wall filaments on the surface of Giardia duodenalis trophozoites committed to encyst was analysed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) and by fluorescence microscopy (FM). SEM showed a progressive appearance of fibril patches, predominantly on the anterior area of ventral and dorsal surfaces, which then spread and coalesced. By TEM, ruthenium red (RR) displayed staining in encysting cells as rodlike spots of variable diameter (3–25 nm), possibly microfibril tips with polyanionic moieties, that displayed tangential associations and random orientations over the cell membrane. In FM assays, the 1,10-phenanthroline derivative of ruthenium red (RR/oPHE) was a specific ligand for these assembling fibrils and this staining was significantly blocked by N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNac) and galactosamine (GalN). Interestingly, RR staining was lost when the cyst wall was completely assembled and thickened as observed by TEM and FM. Kinetic FM assays, in which a mAb specific for a 26 kDa Giardia cyst wall polypeptide was used concomitantly with RR/oPHE staining, showed a differential pattern for the appearance and reactivity of polypeptide and assembling GalN/GalNac-rich moieties of Giardia cyst wall.

The relative fecundity of populations of Eimeria tenella was estimated by means of mixed infection using electrophoretic variation of glucose-phosphate isomerases (GPIs) as a genetic marker. A decoquinate-resistant strain with GPI-9 isozyme (DR-NIAH), a decoquinate-sensitive one with GPI-1 (DS-Iwate), and three decoquinate-resistant lines (No. 3, 4, and 5) derived from cross-fertilization between DR-NIAH and DS-Iwate, were used. The GPI phenotypes of the No. 3 and No. 4 lines are GPI-9, and that of No. 5 is GPI-1. Mixed infection experiments were performed between DR-NIAH and DS-Iwate, No. 3 and No. 5, and No. 4 and No. 5. DR-NIAH was predominant over DS-Iwate in the mixed infection, whereas, in single infections, the total oocyst output of DR-NIAH was similar to or less than that of DS-Iwate. Among three lines, No. 4 was predominant over No. 5, and No. 5 was predominant over No. 3 in the mixed infection. Relative fecundity between No. 3 and No. 5 and their patterns of oocyst output in single infections were similar to those in the mixed infection. In contrast, No. 5 produced more oocysts than No. 4 in single infections, suggesting that the oocyst production in the mixed infection may be influenced by the mutual interference or competition between the populations of E. tenella in the chicken caeca.

The haemogregarine which is the subject of the present communication was obtained in material collected by me during two voyages made in a trawler in July 1910, round the Shetlands and the north coast of Scotland. It was found in large adult specimens of catfish (Anarrhichas lupus), taken by otter trawl from a depth of 50 to 80 fathoms, in the vicinity of Fair Isle and Foula, and on Whitenhead Bank about nine miles to the N.N.E. of Cape Wrath. Catfish taken near Rhona and Sulisker in the Atlantic showed no infection, but the number of fish examined was so small that one could not assume the infection to be absent in this locality.

The actinomycete, Pasteuria penetrans, is a specific endoparasite of various plant-parasitic nematodes. When parasitizing the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanical) the nematode's capacity to reproduce is destroyed and feeding on and stimulation of the plant host are unaffected even though the bulbous body of the female nematode becomes filled with spores. Parasitism by the actinomycete does not alter the rate of growth in the early stages of nematode development although the non-parasitized female grows more rapidly than the parasitized one for a short time immediately after the final moult. Pasteuria did not invade or inactivate the anterior oesophageal region of the female Meloidogyne or influence the morphology of the giant cells induced by these nematodes in their hosts' roots. The influence of this parasite on the developmental physiology of its nematode host is discussed.

An infection of pearl oysters, Pinctada maxima, attributed to a Haplosporidium sp. by Hine and Thorne (1998) has been detected on 3 occasions and is considered to represent a serious concern to the pearling industry in Australia. The spore ornamentation of the parasite was determined by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Spores of the parasite were pleomorphic, or elongated 3·5–4 μm×2·5–3·0 μm in size. Two filaments were wound around the spore and originated from 2 ‘knob-like’ posterior thickenings. Both filaments passed up one side of the spore together until just below the operculum whereupon each split and passed obliquely under the lip of the opercula lid. Each filament wrapped around the spore 4 times. The posterior thickenings seem to appear late in the development of the spore and were composed of spore wall material. A second set of branching tubular filaments composed of a different material was observed on the spore body although not on mature spores possessing a ‘knob-like’ posterior thickening. The ornamentation on the spores of the pearl oyster parasite was unique amongst described haplosporidian species where spore ornamentation is known. The parasite is named in this manuscript as Haplosporidium hinei n. sp.

Warburton (1920) has recently published a survey of our present knowledge of the mites of the genus Sarcoptes; from his survey it is clear that in spite of all the work that has been done upon these mites, much of it by most pains-taking anatomists, we are still without an accurate knowledge of the anatomy of any one species of Sarcoptes. This is, in part at any rate, due to the fact that some of the best work was done, by Robin and others, between 1860 and 1865, at a time when microscopes and technique were by no means as highly developed as they now are.