Children add further complexity by combining two or more clauses. They can link them with coordination or subordination. In subordinate constructions, one clause is embedded in the main or matrix clause. The embedded clause can fill a grammatical role, as subject, say, in complement constructions, or it can modify parts of the main clause, adding to a noun phrase with a relative clause, or to a verb phrase with a temporal clause. These constructions allow for more options in the flow of information as well as in the expression of more complex events. Among the first constructions here are coordinations of different elements in a clause, as well as of different clauses. Among subordinate clause constructions, because, what, when, and so were the most frequent up to 2;9, followed by if, that, and where. They produced relative clauses to specify referents; complements with verbs like think and know. And they produced temporal, causal, and conditional constructions to describe sequences of events. Children treat clause order first as reflecting the actual order of events, only later assigning the appropriate meanings to connectives like before and after. And they take time to master the meanings of because and if.

This chapter addresses coordination and subordination in Slavic languages. The author presents the architecture of the following types of coordination: conjunctive, disjunctive, asyndetic and polysyndetic, adversative, correlative (initial), non-constituent, and comitative. He then goes on to discuss the architecture of subordination: complement clauses, relative clauses, and adverbial clauses.

This chapter investigates how digitization changes the internal organization of firms. Gig economy platforms and freelancing agencies are rapidly taking over market share changing our very definition of a “firm,” whereas those who still work for traditional firms increasingly rely on virtual tools and external digital platforms to coordinate and communicate. Similarly, many of the firm’s other production activities may be outsourced to external providers, including inputs, manufacturing, assembly, logistics, marketing, and even R&D. We explore the emerging nature of the firm if much of its activities are carried out by other organizations, and pinpoint the key characteristics that determine what activities firms may want to continue in-house and which activities they can conveniently use digital markets and platforms to pursue.

Interorganizational coordination is increasingly viewed as crucial to frontline crisis response. Contemporary crises often require the collective action of multiple organizations. Many researchers recommend integrating frontline responders of diverse organizations to make good use of scarce resources and synchronize their actions. In practice, frontline responders frequently choose fragmentation by dividing responsibilities and limiting interactions instead. This allows them to implement a fast response without being dependent on others. At the same time, it can lead to safety risks and suboptimal outcomes. Frontline responders face a dilemma, because they have an interest in pursuing both integration and fragmentation. It is useful to note that coordination may not always be the right course of action in a crisis. Even if it is, it does not necessarily need to be formal, as much coordination emerges in the operational field. For more structured ways of coordinating, the nature of the crisis and existing interorganizational relations are useful guides in how to organize the coordination. Generally, it must be conditional upon the situation at hand.

This chapter examines aspects of coordination in the language of Latin prayers. The general question addressed concerns the sense in which ‘early Latin’ features manifest themselves in prayers, and whether the term ‘early Latin’ is an appropriate designation of any peculiarities of prayer coordination. The results of the inquiry on ‘early’ prayers in the corpus considered in the chapter is that asyndeton bimembre, though in use, was not in high fashion, and that end-of-list coordination was preferred to long asyndeta and multiple coordinations, a preference that is the reverse of that of genres other than prayers in the early period and later.

This chapter examines aspects of coordination in the language of Latin prayers. The general question addressed concerns the sense in which early Latin features manifest themselves in prayers, and whether the term ‘early Latin’ is an appropriate designation of any peculiarities of prayer coordination. The results of the inquiry on ‘early’ prayers in the corpus considered in the chapter is that asyndeton bimembre, though in use, was not in high fashion, and that end-of-list coordination was preferred to long asyndeta and multiple coordinations, a preference that is the reverse of that of genres other than prayers in the early period and later.

This chapter presents the fundamental theoretical principles of Role and Reference Grammar. The exposition does not presuppose any previous familiarity with RRG, and it ties in with the relevant chapters in the Handbook. After a discussion of theoretical assumptions, the theory of syntactic structure, including clauses, phrases and words, is presented in detail, with new data not found in previous expositions of the theory. The presentation includes the structure of both simple and complex sentences. The next major section concerns semantic representation, and this includes the representation of simple clauses, semantics roles and interclausal semantic relations. There follows a very short mention of the notion of information structure; the reader is referred to two other chapters which present these ideas in detail. The final section concerns the linking between syntax and semantics in simple and complex sentences. The issue of representing language-specific vs. cross-linguistically valid grammatical information is a major theme of this section. RRG’s approach involving constructional schemata is quite distinct from that of mainstream construction grammar.

This chapter offers an in-depth treatment of clause linkage and complex sentences in RRG. First, it discusses and exemplifies each nexus–juncture type, adducing evidence from a wide range of languages. Then, it introduces the notion of syntactic and semantic cohesiveness in clause linkage and makes relevant generalizations and predictions.

This chapter introduces compound sentences, as the components of these complicated sentences have equal importance. Four types of common compound sentences are examined: coordinative, successive, incremental, and alternative. Each type is introduced in terms of specific correlative markers and their meanings and uses.

This chapter analyses the policies and practices related to resolving investor–state disputes through ISDS. In this area, three broad themes emerged from our data. First, there are practices of forming the defence strategy for specific investment arbitrations and handling ISDS proceedings. The main issue is whether to engage lawyers from private practice and, if so, to what extent. Second, we discuss the matter of coordination and communication between various governance actors during ISDS proceedings. The third issue is that of dispute prevention. Given the stakes, risks, and challenges resulting from ISDS disputes, many governance actors dealing with IIAs realise that dispute prevention is crucial in internalising the IIA disciplines. This section focuses on various training and educative programmes for bureaucrats that were designed, proposed, or implemented to increase the knowledge about and awareness of IIAs within the broad sphere of national governance. We end with a discussion on the blurring of the public–private divide through the engagement of private expertise in the service of the public when defending ISDS cases.

When new generations arrive in the world, they look around and many times remark about what a lousy job their predecessors (parents) have done. The world we leave our children we hope is better than the one we inherited, but that is many times not the case. The question then arises of how, after we have made a mess of things, we can rectify the situation. The answer is to teach our children to do better. Leave them advice that basically says “don’t do as we did, but do as we say or advise you to do”. This chapter investigates how easy this is to do. The central question is how to break out of unsatisfactory equilibria when they occur. What we find is that intergenerational advice can be beneficial in such situations but only if the advice offered is common knowledge. More precisely, it is hard to act in a risky strategic situation (like the one we place our subjects in) if you know that your opponents have been given advice as to what to do but you do not know what that advice is. In such situations, if a safe action exists, it is probably best to choose it unless you are sure that everyone else has been instructed to act responsibly and you expect them to follow that advice. It is at this juncture that common knowledge of advice matters and this is what we investigate in this chapter.

Coordination is a central feature of economic life. If we do not coordinate our activities, we are destined to waste our time and effort. However, often the way we coordinate has distributional consequences – some people receive more benefits than others. Such situations establish what Ullman Margalit (1977) call “norms of partiality” where the convention created to solve a problem bestows privileges on one set of people. If you are on the short end of the convention, you may be upset. We investigate the creation and evolution of conventions of behavior in these situations using our “intergenerational games” framework or games in which a sequence of non-overlapping “generations” of players play a stage game for a finite number of periods and are then replaced by other agents, who continue the game in their role for an identical length of time. Players in generation t can offer advice to their successors in generation t + 1. What we find is that word-of-mouth social learning (in the form of advice from laboratory “parents” to laboratory “children”) can be a strong force in the creation of social conventions.