This paper was originally intended to contain a generalization of a theorem of Banach on the extension of linear functionals. This generalized theorem now appears as a by-product of a study of a class of algebras which we believe to be of much greater interest than the theorem itself. Let X be a vector space over the real field and let π(x) be a sub-additive, positive-homogeneous functional on X. Banach ((2), pp. 27–9) proves that any real linear functional f on a subspace X0 of X which satisfies f(x) ≤ π(x) on X0 can be extended to a real linear functional F on X with F(x) ≤ π(x) on X. One of the essential differences between this theorem and the Hahn-Banach theorem is that π can take negative values.

The techniques developed in (9) are used here to study the properties of multiplicative systems generated by one element (monogenie systems). The results are of two kinds. First, we obtain fairly complete information about the automorphisms and endo-morphisms of free and finitely related loops. The automorphism group of the free monogenie loop is the infinite cyclic group, each automorphism being obtained by mapping the generator on one of its repeated inverses. A monogenie loop with a finite, non-empty set of relations has only a finite number of endomorphisms. These are obtained by mapping the generator on some of the components, or their repeated inverses, occurring in the relations. We use the same methods to solve the isomorphism problem for monogenie loops, i.e. we give a method for determining whether two finitely related monogenie loops are isomorphic. The decision method consists essentially of constructing all homomorphisms between two given finitely related monogenie loops.

We consider a certain method of effectively calculating functions of the positive integers, related to the ‘transfinite recursion’ of Ackermann(1). It arises by use of well-ordered series, and one might hope that the functions so generated could be classified according to the ordinal of the series involved, but we shall see that the use of well-ordered series is not at all essential, and in any case no ordinal other than ω need be used. We investigate how any calculable function (that is, general recursive) can be derived by ordinal recursion (as we name our method), and prove a best possible result.

In 1930 Łukasiewicz (3) developed an ℵ0-valued prepositional calculus with two primitives called implication and negation. The truth-values were all rational numbers satisfying 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 1 being the designated truth-value. If the truth-values of P, Q, NP, CPQ are x, y, n(x), c(x, y) respectively, then

Let G be a group and let us write [x, y] = x−1y−1xy. We shall say that G is an Engel group, or that it satisfies the Engel condition, if to any pair of elements x, y in G there can be assigned an integer k (which is allowed to depend on x, y) such that

Suppose that X is any vector space on which it is possible to recognize a class of sets of such a nature that it is natural to call them ‘bounded’. (Precise conditions for such a class of sets are given in § 2.) Let L be any vector space of linear functionals on X which map each ‘bounded’ set into a bounded set. We say that a filter is boundedly-weakly convergent if it is convergent in the weak topology of the linear system [X, L] and contains a ‘bounded’ set. If M is a vector space of boundedly-weakly continuous linear functionals on X which includes L, we say that a subset S of M is limited if 〈 , f〉 converges uniformly for f ε S whenever is a boundedly-weakly convergent filter.

Let R be an arbitrary associative ring, and X a set of generators of R. The elements of X generate a Lie ring, [X], say, with respect to the addition and subtraction in R, and the multiplication [a, b] = ab − ba. In this note we shall be concerned with the following question: if [X] is given to be nilpotent as a Lie ring, what does this imply about R?

In the classical theory (3) due to Knopp, Agnew and others, the core K(x) of a sequence x = {ξn} of complex numbers is defined by where En(x) is the smallest closed convex set containing all ξk with k ≥ n. A matrix transformation T is said to be a core-preserving transformation if

holds for all sequences x. T is core-preserving for bounded sequences if (1·1) holds for all bounded sequences x. It is readily proved that K(x) is the set of complex numbers ζ such that

for all complex numbers α (). Now is a sub-additive, positive-homogeneous real-valued functional defined on the vector space of bounded complex sequences. This suggests the construction of an abstract theory on the following lines.

It is well known that the elements of any given commutative algebra (and hence of any commutative set) of n × n matrices, over an algebraically closed field K, have a common eigenvector over K; indeed, the elements of such an algebra can be simultaneously reduced to triangular form (by a suitable similarity transformation). McCoy (5) has shown that a triangular reduction is always possible even for matrix algebras satisfying a condition substantially weaker than commutativity. Our aim in this note is to extend these results to more general systems (our arguments being, incidentally, simpler than some used for the matrix case even by writers subsequent to McCoy).

1. The mathematician's tree is a collection of pairs of elements, conveniently called points. A pair of points is a link, and a collection of links is a tree if any two of the points from which the links are formed can be connected by a chain, and if there are no closed chains. A tree is determined if there is provided a complete schedule of the links composing the tree. Conversely, no description of a tree can be adequate unless a complete schedule is recoverable from the description. An arbitrary schedule of links does not usually describe a tree, and the object of this note is to give canonical schedules for the most general finite tree, and to specify these schedules as economically as possible. The fundamental result established is that the structure of a tree with n points can be encoded in a row of n − 2 symbols each of which may stand for any one of the points. Cayley's theorem, that the number of different trees with n given points is nn−2, is an immediate corollary.

The problem with which this paper is concerned is that of packing non-overlapping plane figures into a given plane figure. It is of a different type from the usual packing problem in which equal figures are used in the whole plane, and the aim is to calculate the limit of the ratio of covered area to the total area inside a large circle, as the radius of the circle tends to infinity. A closest packing in this problem is an arrangement of the figures in such a way that this limit attains its largest value.

Let L1, …, Ln be n homogeneous linear forms in n variables u1, …, un, with non-zero determinant Δ. Suppose that L1, …, Lr have real coefficients, that Lr+1, …, Lr+s have complex coefficients, and that the form Lr+s+j is the complex conjugate of the form Lr+j for j = 1, …, s, where r + 2s = n. Let

for integral u1, …, un, not all zero. For any n numbers α1, …, αn of the same ‘type’ as the forms L1, …, Ln (that is, α1, …, αr real, αr+1, …, αr+s complex, αr+s+j = ᾱr+j), let

Asymptotic approximations of Green's type to solutions of differential equations are studied, with special reference to the uniformity of the approximation given by the first term. In extension to the complex variable this is found to require substantial restrictions on the region considered. An anomaly previously noticed is traced to non-uniformity of approximation. The case where the coefficient χ0 has a simple zero and χ1 is not zero is treated by a simple method.

Dvoretsky, Erdös and Kakutani (3), showed that Brownian paths in 4 dimensions have zero 2-dimensional capacity, and their method gives the same result for Brownian paths in n-space whenever n ≥ 3. However, if we apply the method indicated by Hausdorff (4) for constructing a linear set having measure 1 with respect to a given measure function h(x), the Cantor-type set we obtain when h(x) = xα log log 1/x, where 0 < α < 1, is easily seen to have zero α-capacity but infinite α-measure; and similar methods apply for other values of α. Thus the result mentioned above does not imply that Brownian paths in n-space (n ≥ 3) have zero 2-measure. The other relevant result is due to Lévy (6), who showed that Brownian paths in the plane have zero Lebesgue measure (and therefore zero Hausdorff 2-measure) with probability 1. However, his method of proof cannot be extended to deal with Brownian paths in n-space.

The recent progress of modern algebra in analysing, from the algebraic standpoint, the foundations of algebraic geometry, has been marked by the rapid development of what may be called ‘analytic algebra’. By this we mean the topological theories of Noetherian rings that arise when one uses ideals to define neighbourhoods; this includes, for instance, the theory of power-series rings and of local rings. In the present paper some applications are made of this kind of algebra to some problems connected with the notion of a branch of a variety at a point.

Some years ago I showed ((4), § 6, pp. 88–91) that the star domain K defined by the inequalities

has the minimum determinant Δ(K) = 2 and has an infinity of singular critical lattices. In this note I show that there is a unique irreducible star domain . That ís to say, there is just one star domain H contained in but different from K for which Δ(H) = Δ(K) = 2, and such that Δ(H′) < 2 for every star domain H′ contained in but different from H.

1·1. In this paper we shall be concerned with the equations

where K is a compact (completely continuous) linear operator in a Hilbert space , K is the adjoint of K, I is the identity operator, x and y are elements of ∥ x ∥ denotes the norm of x, and κ and σ are complex numbers.

This note is concerned with the r-dimensional torus Tr, whose points x are r-tuples (x1, x2, …, xr), where the xi are not numbers but residue-classes modulo 1. The addition of two elements of Tr follows the vector law

This paper contains a table of the confluent hypergeometric function over the range a = − 1·0(0·1) + 1·0, b = 0·1(0·1)1·0, x= 1·0(1·0)10·0, and the expansions in converging factors by means of which the accuracy of the asymptotic expansions for higher values of x can be improved.

It is a classical result (5) that the algebraic surfaces which admit a continuous group of birational self-transformations, or automorphisms, and which are neither rational nor scrollar, belong to one or other of two families: (i) the elliptic surfaces; these possess an elliptic group of ∞1 automorphisms; (ii) the hyperelliptic surfaces of rank 1 (which, for brevity, we shall call hyperelliptic); these possess a completely transitive permutable group of ∞2 automorphisms. The chief properties of the two classes of surface, in so far as they are required in the present work, are described in § 1.