Climate variability is expected to increase due to climate change, with projected increases in temperature and erratic rainfall patterns. These changes will alter the environmental cues sensed by seeds, and therefore will impact plant recruitment. This study investigated the effects of seed functional traits (germinability, germination time, synchrony and seed mass) on germination responses of several sub-tropical native Australian plant species under different environmental factors (water stress, salinity and pH). The effect of a hot water pre-treatment was also tested on Fabaceae seeds with known physical dormancy. Seed traits, environmental factors and seed pre-treatments had significant effects on final germination percentage and germination time. Seed mass and time to 50% germination (t50) were also positively correlated. In contrast, pH did not affect germination and there was no interaction between pH and any of the measured seed functional traits. Some species showed a high thermal tolerance to germination and germination was indifferent to light conditions for all species. Results showed that certain seed functional traits interact with environmental factors to influence germination percentage and time. These findings highlight the importance of considering seed functional traits when determining a species germination response under a changing climate. In addition, the findings provide important knowledge to better guide seed-based land restoration programmes.

Light and temperature conditions trigger germination in specific temporal windows and microhabitats, thus determining the germination niche of plant species. Manihot species grow in fire-prone ecosystems and their seeds show heat tolerance. Successful establishment in disturbed environments might be related to seed attributes that allow seeds to cope with or avoid stressful environments. We studied some characteristics of the germination niche of Manihot grahamii, a pioneer woody species present in dry subtropical forests of central Argentina, to understand its successful establishment in disturbed environments. We evaluated the germination ecology of the seeds of M. grahamii with the aims to (1) characterize seed traits (viability, mass and moisture content); (2) determine whether it has dormancy and if it is physical or physiological; (3) evaluate the effect of several pre-treatments (gibberellic acid, after ripening, dry prechilling and dry prechilling + warm) on seed dormancy; and (4) assess the effect of different environmental events of high temperatures on the germination process simulating two treatments: fire intensities (with three levels of heat shock) and a gap temperature. M. grahamii seeds have large mass (0.24 g), low moisture content (8%), physiological dormancy, negative photoblastic behaviour and high heat tolerance. Dormancy was alleviated and seeds became insensitive to light when they were exposed to pre-treatments of dry prechilling + warm and high-temperature treatments. This germination strategy promotes secure germination timing into the rainy season on undisturbed habitats as well as a cue for competition-released gaps which in turn favour recruitment in open, disturbed and dry habitats, respectively. In the context of global change, with an increasing habitat fragmentation and fire frequency, M. grahamii could become more abundant and extend its geographic distributional range in central Argentina.

Prostrate water primrose is a troublesome weed in rice paddy fields. A study was conducted to determine the influence of environmental and agronomic factors on its emergence. The efficacy of herbicides on this species was also examined. The germination percentage of mature seeds remained above 90% within 180 d after harvest, indicating a low primary dormancy of this species. Light stimulated seed germination. Seeds buried deeper than 0.5 cm did not form seedlings. These results suggest that stale seedbed practices and deep tillage operations can mitigate the occurrence of this species in paddy fields. The optimum temperature for germination varied from 25/15 C to 35/25 C. The osmotic potential and salt concentration needed to inhibit 50% of maximum germination were −0.4 MPa and 197 mM, respectively. Seeds were tolerant to flooding and did not germinate at pH 8 to 10. The preemergence herbicides oxadiazon, oxadiargyl, and butachlor had excellent control efficacy on prostrate water primrose, with a 95.4% to 100% reduction in seedling number and a 99.2% to 100% reduction in biomass, respectively. The postemergence herbicides MCPA-Na + bentazone, bentazone, MCPA-Na, and fluroxypyr applied at the 2- to 3-leaf stage of prostrate water primrose provided a 90.6% to 100% reduction in seedling number and a 99.3% to 100% reduction in biomass. The results of this study can help in developing sustainable and effective integrated weed management strategies for controlling prostrate water primrose in paddy fields.

Post-fire flowering (PFF) species resprout, flower and disperse seeds within weeks after fire. This may be an important strategy to recruit new individuals and colonize the gaps opened by fire. The seeds released in the post-fire environment may interact with byproducts derived from plant burning, and the resulting ash may have compounds that can promote the germination of various seeds, particularly those with permeable coats. In the Cerrado ecoregion, PFF is a strategy commonly observed in the species of the ground layer, but their seeds are rarely investigated. So, we examined the quality and the germination of the seeds of 13 species that disperse seeds within 3 months after fire. We estimated the amount of empty, filled and predated seeds for each species, and tested the germination with or without ash. There was a clear separation in seed quality as dicots produced 35–75% filled seeds but grasses <15%. Pre-dispersal predation was only observed for dicots (<10%). Ash stimulated the germination of two out of the three dormant species but inhibited the germination of three non-dormant species. Overall, the seeds produced in response to fire are an important source of genetic variability in an ecosystem that has resprouting as the main persistence strategy. As most species have non-dormant seeds, ash may only be important to stimulate the germination of few PFF species. Even so, ash can be completely washed away by rains before seeds are dispersed and may not have an effect under field conditions.

Generally, orchids produce dust-like seeds in which endosperm reduction and embryo undifferentiation represent a derived state shared with species in about 11 other plant families. Orchid seeds are proposed to have a special kind of morphological or morphophysiological dormancy. We test this proposition, overcoming several design limitations of earlier studies, specifically that the in vitro germination method for orchid seeds uses pro-oxidants for disinfection and incorporates nitrate in the medium; both ‘treatments’ might contribute to dormancy breaking, potentially confounding judgement on the depth and nature of the dormant state. Seeds of the tropical orchid Dendrobium cruentum Rchb. f., were sown both in vitro, on a nutrient medium, and ex vitro, on plain agar omitting prior disinfection with sodium hypochlorite. Seeds previously stored and fresh seeds were incubated under combinations of vitro conditions, light treatments, constant or alternating temperatures and nitrate concentration. Seeds of D. cruentum are very small but have a large embryo that occupies most of the seed. Over a range of constant temperature seeds germinated to the spherical protocorm stage just as well ex vitro as in vitro. Neither light nor nitrate were prerequisites for ex vitro germination. The ability of D. cruentum seed to germinate in the absence of environmental or chemical stimuli suggests that mature seed can be non-dormant. Our results support the proposition that neither all DUST seed fit a dormancy class nor all orchids produce morphological or morphophysiological seeds. Finally, embryo/seed volume determinations in orchids may prove as valuable in studies on the evolution and ecology of germination and dormancy as embryo:seed ratios in other angiosperm species.

A steady supply of hosts at the susceptible stage for parasitism is a major component of mass rearing parasitoids for biological control programs. Here we describe the effects of storing 5th instar Plodia interpunctella larvae in dormancy on subsequent host development in the context of host colony maintenance and effects of the duration of host dormancy on the development of Habrobracon hebetor parasitoids reared from dormant hosts. We induced dormancy with a combination of short daylength (12L:12D) and lower temperature (15°C), conditions known to induce diapause in this species, and held 5th instar larvae of P. interpunctella for a series of dormancy durations ranging from 15 to 105 days. Extended storage of dormant 5th instar larvae had no significant impacts on survival, development, or reproductive potential of P. interpunctella, reinforcing that dormant hosts have a substantial shelf life. This ability to store hosts in dormancy for more than 3 months at a time without strong negative consequences reinforces the promise of using dormancy to maintain host colonies. The proportion of hosts parasitized by H. hebetor did not vary significantly between non-dormant host larvae and dormant host larvae stored for periods as long as 105 days. Concordant with a prior study, H. hebetor adult progeny production from dormant host larvae was higher than the number of progeny produced on non-dormant host larvae. There were no differences in size, sex ratio, or reproductive output of parasitoids reared on dormant hosts compared to non-dormant hosts stored for up to 105 days. Larval development times of H. hebetor were however longer when reared on dormant hosts compared to non-dormant hosts. Our results agree with other studies showing using dormant hosts can improve parasitoid mass rearing, and we show benefits for parasitoid rearing even after 3 months of host dormancy.

Oxygen is a major factor of seed germination since it allows resumption of respiration and subsequent metabolism reactivation during seed imbibition, thus leading to the production of reducing power and ATP. Most studies carried out in the 60s to 85s indicate that oxygen requirement depends on the species and is modulated by environmental factors. They have also demonstrated that the covering structures mainly inhibit germination by limiting oxygen supply to the embryo during imbibition through enzymatic oxidation of phenolic compounds by polyphenol oxidases (catechol oxidase and laccase) and peroxidases. Recent use of oxygen-sensitive microsensors has allowed to better characterize the oxygen diffusion in the seed and determine the oxygen content at the level of embryo below the covering structures. Here, I will also highlight the major data obtained over the last 30 years indicating the key role of oxygen in the molecular networks regulating seed germination and dormancy through (1) the hormonal balance (ethylene, ABA and GA), the hormone-signalling pathway and, in particular, the ABA sensitivity, (2) the emerging role of mitochondria in ROS production in hypoxia and (3) the involvement of the N-degron pathway in the turnover of proteins involved in seed tolerance to hypoxia.

The loss of large frugivores leads to seed dispersal loss and regeneration failure of numerous large-seeded trees near mother trees. Although Janzen–Connell effects are considered as the primary underlying cause, other factors remain understudied. Here, we used a field experiment to test the impact of flesh persistence on the recruitment of two large-seeded Sapotaceae species that lost their dispersers. In the rainforest of Mare Longue (Réunion), we sowed 3840 seeds in a four-factor design: seed treatment (seed cleaning; flesh persistence), canopy closure (understory; gap), year of sowing (01/2018; 11/2019) and species (Labourdonnaisia calophylloides, Mimusops balata). We also used camera traps to evaluate the impact of extant vertebrates. Seed treatment was by far the most influential factor: flesh persistence led to seedling recruitment divided by 3,2 on average, mainly due to failure of germination or seedling emergence. There were also significant variations in recruitment between species, years and canopy closure levels, notably due to the behaviour of the invasive fauna, especially giant snails that could unexpectedly restore recruitment by feeding on fruit flesh. Together, our results demonstrate strongly depleted recruitment due to flesh persistence and the importance of field experiments to understand the processes at work in complex ecosystems with novel plant–animal interactions.

Genetic and biochemical studies have greatly advanced our understanding of the biology of seeds in recent years. Another area of study, which could accelerate contemporary seed biology research, is phylogenomics that integrates the wealth of genome sequence data with evolutionary biology. The recent phylogenomic study of the DELAY OF GERMINATION1 family genes exemplifies how the molecular evolution of seed genes can be traced back through early diverging plants and what implications can be obtained from the analysis of seed gene diversification at ancient times. The identification of possible ancestors of seed genes in non-seed plants could illuminate the ancient roots of the molecular mechanisms driving seed maturation programmes. It is possible that the origins of molecular mechanisms associated with the induction of seed storage proteins and desiccation tolerance proteins date back to the time of, or even prior to, early diverging land plants. Abscisic acid-dependent growth arrest or dormancy mechanisms might date back to red algae, one of the oldest algal groups. Thus, understanding algal cell biology will also be an integral part of future seed biology research. Unravelling key events associated with the evolution of seed- and non-seed plants will not only advance basic research but could also contribute to applied aspects of seed science, potentially leading to technology development for agriculture.

Tephritid fruit flies in the genus Rhagoletis bridge between predictable periods of fruit availability by becoming dormant. To cope with acyclic unpredictable events (e.g., frost, mast seeding, etc), a proportion of the population can undergo prolonged dormancy. In the case of walnut infesting Rhagoletis, host plant-derived cues such as juglone soil concentration vary seasonally in predictable patterns. Here, we examined the effects of host plant parts and derived compounds on emergence rates and dormancy duration of Rhagoletis completa (Cresson), Rhagoletis zoqui (Bush) (Diptera: Tephritidae), and associated parasitoids. Pupae of both species were exposed to walnut leaves, fruit, or fruit and leaves and compared to a control. In a second experiment, R. zoqui were exposed to 10 mg l−1 of juglone applied to pupation medium during four consecutive 4-week time periods under variable combinations of temperature and frequency of exposure. Overall, the presence of fruit resulted in greater overwintering survival of R. completa but had no effect on the duration of dormancy of either fly species. Application of juglone over two consecutive periods produced greater mortality of R. zoqui than the control. Three parasitoid species emerged from R. completa and one from R. zoqui. Duration of dormancy for parasitoids was longer than that of fly hosts. Regardless of treatment, 13.3–18.4% of R. completa pupae and 1.3–2.8% R. zoqui engaged in prolonged (>year) dormancy. Our results indicate that host plant derived cues have little or no effect on survival and duration of dormancy of walnut infesting Rhagoletis, and at the tested concentration juglone is toxic to R. zoqui pupae. Testing the effect of juglone at lower concentrations is necessary to rule out its role as an environmental cue for regulation of dormancy. So far, host plant fruiting phenology appears to play a greater role than host plant derived cues in selecting for fly eclosion times.

Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) shows variable levels of seed physiological dormancy (PD), which depends on the genotype and environmental condition during seed development. To analyse the effect of field temperature and precipitation during seed filling on the PD, two cultivars were sown on five dates in 2014 and 2015. After harvest, the level of seed PD was 4–28%. High-temperature stress (>29°C) in the field during seed development, measured as heat stress units (HSUs), reduced seed PD (increased germination) at harvest. After 9 months of dry afterripening under laboratory conditions, mean dormant seed values were reduced from 15 ± 8 to 8 ± 7%. An increment in the seed PD level reduced seedling emergence in the field. Seed with 20% PD produced only 50% of field emergence, under optimal environmental conditions. Different vigour tests were conducted and each was compared with field emergence. The speed of germination, through the first count at 5 d of the standard germination test, and the shoot length at 10 d were better associated with the seedling establishment in the field. The HSU could be useful to establish a possible PD range in the seed of perennial ryegrass after the growing season. The development of models considering the HSU and other climatic parameters could motivate future studies.

Increased frequency and occurrence of herbicide-resistant biotypes heightens the need for alternative wild oat management strategies. This study aimed to exploit the height differential between wild oat and crops by targeting wild oat between panicle emergence and seed shed timing. Two field studies were conducted either in Lacombe, AB, or Lacombe, AB and Saskatoon, SK, from 2015 to 2017. In the first study, we compared panicle removal methods: hand clipping, use of a hedge trimmer, and a selective herbicide crop topping application to a weedy check and an industry standard in-crop herbicide application in wheat. These treatments were tested early (at panicle emergence), late (at initiation of seed shed), or in combination at one location over 3 yr. In the second study, we investigated optimal timing of panicle removal via a hedge trimmer with weekly removals in comparison to a weedy check in wheat and lentil. This study was conducted at two locations, Lacombe, AB, and Saskatoon, SK, over 3 yr. Among all the tested methods, the early crop topping treatment consistently had the largest impact on wild oat density, dockage, seedbank, and subsequent year crop yield. The early (at panicle emergence) or combination of early and late (at initiation of seed shed) treatments tended to reduce wild oat populations the following season the most compared to the late treatments. Subsequent wild oat populations were not influenced by panicle removal timing, but only by crop and location interactions. Panicle removal timing did significantly affect wild oat dockage in the year of treatment, but no consistent optimal timing could be identified. However, the two studies together highlight additional questions to be investigated, as well as the opportunity to manage wild oat seedbank inputs at the panicle emergence stage of the wild oat lifecycle.

A diverse set of 107 rice genotypes was evaluated for yield, shattering and dormancy traits. Analysis of variance revealed sizable variation while skewness and kurtosis values indicated near-normal distribution for most of the traits, thus quantitative nature controlled by many genes. A highly significant deviation from a normal distribution for dormancy and shattering % indicated their qualitative nature of inheritance. Four promising genotypes ‘IRGC1723’ (early with 65 days to flowering), ‘IRGC 11108’ and ‘RNR 15459’ (high grain number – 358 and low average shattering – <5%), ‘RNR 11718’ (high single plant yield – 56.73 g, low average shattering – <5% and dormancy period – 21 days) are identified. A significant positive correlation between shattering and dormancy confirms inter-relationship among domestication-related characteristics. The principal component analysis revealed the contribution of four PCs to maximum variability and hierarchical clustering grouped the genotypes into 18 divergent clusters. Five cultivars (Karimnagar Samba, Sheetal, PR 121, Pranahitha and Jagitial Samba) with a combination of low shattering ability (3.35–5.7%) and considerable dormancy period (13–20 days) falling in the same cluster can be used as donors for the improvement of rice genotypes with low shattering ability and incorporating a considerable period of dormancy so as to avoid pre-harvest sprouting due to delayed harvesting. Further, they can be crossed with ‘Pratyumna’ having less than 1 week dormancy period, a genotype of the cluster XVII with which they have a maximum genetic divergence of 51.4 and may serve as parents in the development of mapping populations for the identification of QTLs/genes for shattering and dormancy traits.

With the purpose of broadening knowledge on the evolution of life history strategies and behaviour of fruit flies within the tribe Carpomyini, the natural history and mating behaviour of the poorly known species Rhagoletotrypeta pastranai Aczél, are described for the first time. Larvae of R. pastranai were recovered from infested Celtis tala Gillies ex Planch and Celtis iguanaea (Jacq.) Sarg. during a 2-month fruiting period. Adults emerged from the recovered pupae after an average of 144.9 ± 3.9 days for females and 143.2 ± 3.38 days for males, suggesting that most individuals became dormant. Results of a variable winter length study suggested that environmental factors other than winter length may regulate dormancy/diapause duration in this subtropical species. Under laboratory conditions, R. pastranai adults lived an average of 51.13 ± 3.06 days in case of females and 48.08 ± 3.76 days in case of males, and required 5–15 days to reach sexual maturity. Behavioural observations under confinement revealed scarce sexual activity but sufficed to determine that, as in other members of the tribe Carpomyini, R. pastranai exhibits a male resource defence mating system. We discuss our findings emphasizing the importance of documenting the natural history and behaviour of unknown species of family Tephritidae and additionally, we highlight the necessity of future research to understand factors regulating dormancy/diapause and the evolution of life history strategies and sexual behaviour of subtropical species.

Dwarf amaranth (Amaranthus macrocarpus Benth.) is a problematic broadleaf weed in many crops in Australia; however, no information is available on the germination ecology of this species. Seeds from two populations of this species were collected from Hillston, NSW, Australia (D-P-01), and Yandilla, QLD, Australia (D-P-02). Seeds were germinated at a range of constant (20 to 45 C) and alternating temperatures (30/20, 35/25, 40/30, and 45/35 C day/night). For the constant temperature treatments, the highest germination occurred at 35 C for D-P-01 (89%) and D-P-02 (82%). Germination was higher at the alternating day/night temperature of 40/30 C for both populations D-P-01 (91%) and D-P-02 (85%). Seed germination of both populations was stimulated by light, which indicates a great amount of emergence of A. macrocarpus can occur on bare ground such as crop seed beds. Results also revealed that this species tolerates a moderate level of salinity and can germinate in slightly alkaline soil conditions. The emergence of this species was highest (47%) for the seed buried at 0.5-cm depth in grey cracking alkaline soil compared with seed buried at the same depth in acidic red soils. These results suggest that soil inversion by tillage to bury weed seeds below their maximum emergence depth could serve as an important tool for managing A. macrocarpus. The results from this study will help in developing more sustainable and effective integrated weed management tactics for the control of this weed and weeds with similar responses in summer cropping systems.

Entamoeba histolytica infection causes amoebiasis, which is a global public health problem. The major route of infection is oral ingestion of E. histolytica cysts, cysts being the sole form responsible for host-to-host transmission. Cysts are produced by cell differentiation from proliferative trophozoites in a process termed ‘encystation’. Therefore, encystation is an important process from a medical as well as a biological perspective. Previous electron microscopy studies have shown the ultrastructure of precysts and mature cysts; however, the dynamics of ultrastructural changes during encystation were ambiguous. Here, we analysed a series of Entamoeba invadens encysting cells by transmission electron microscopy. Entamoeba invadens is a model for encystation and the cells were prepared by short interval time course sampling from in vitro encystation-inducing cultures. We related sampled cells to stage conversion, which was monitored in the overall population by flow cytometry. The present approach revealed the dynamics of ultrastructure changes during E. invadens encystation. Importantly, the results indicate a functional linkage of processes that are crucial in encystation, such as glycogen accumulation and cyst wall formation. Hence, this study provides a reference for studying sequential molecular events during Entamoeba encystation.

Cultivated northern wild rice (NWR; Zizania palustris L.) has been bred and studied since the 1950s. One challenge facing researchers is the lack of storage options, due to the seed's unorthodox behaviour. This study evaluated varying storage temperature and moisture conditions for the maintenance of seed viability and dormancy breaking in Minnesota-grown NWR. First, seeds were placed in non-submerged, freezing storage (NSFS) for 12–26 weeks, then in submerged, cold storage (SCS) for 2 weeks. The addition of SCS increased germination (%G) relative to NSFS alone (<0.1% NSFS, 15% NSFS and SCS), indicating that NSFS does not kill seeds but also does not break seed dormancy. Next, the required length of SCS was evaluated by placing seeds in NSFS for 12 weeks and then in SCS for 2–14 weeks. A longer SCS period increased %G from 3 to 79%, at 2 and 14 weeks of SCS, respectively. Lastly, seeds were placed in NSFS, followed by SCS, at varying intervals over a 29-week period. Across lines, germination increased from 20 to 76% between 4 and 7 weeks of SCS, respectively, then plateaued. The results of this study indicate that NSFS could be used to store NWR seeds, but at least 7 weeks in SCS is required to overcome dormancy. Additionally, while NSFS did not break seed dormancy, physiological changes related to stratification processes were occurring in non-submerged, freezing conditions. Results also suggest that the genotypic variation in NWR could be utilized for selection to improve germination and storage viability.

The understanding of the genetic basis of grain dormancy in wheat has rapidly improved in the last few years, and a number of genes have been identified related to that trait. We recently identified the wheat genes TaPM19-A1 and -A2 and we have now taken the first step towards understanding the role of this class of genes in seeds. By investigating the Arabidopsis homologous PM19-Like 1 (PM19L1) we have found that it has a seed-specific expression pattern and, while its expression is higher in dormant than in non-dormant seeds, knock-out mutations produced seeds with increased dormancy. Not only primary dormancy, but also secondary dormancy in response to high temperature was increased by the loss-of-function. We have also examined the function of PM19L1 by localizing the PM19 protein primarily to the cotyledon cells in seeds, possibly in membranes. By investigating the co-expression network of this gene we have found that it is connected to a small group of abscisic acid (ABA)-induced seed maturation and storage-related genes. The function of PM19L1 represents a good opportunity to explore the interactions of key factors that can influence seed dormancy such as ABA, temperature and membrane properties.

We used two sunflower genotypes displaying pericarp-imposed dormancy at high incubation temperatures (i.e. 30°C) to investigate the role of the pericarp as a limitation to oxygen availability to the embryo (hypoxia), and its impact on embryo abscisic acid (ABA) content and sensitivity to ABA. Results showed that both genotypes displayed very different oxygen threshold values for inhibition of embryo germination when incubation was performed at 30°C. Expression of dormancy in one genotype was therefore related to exacerbated embryo sensitivity to hypoxia, whereas in the other genotype, the pericarp appeared to act as a more severe restraint to oxygen entry. Increased sensitivity to hypoxia was, in part, related to increased sensitivity to ABA, but not to alterations in ABA metabolism. The activity of pericarp-microbial communities (bacteria and fungi) at high temperatures was also assessed as a potential determinant of hypoxia to the embryo. Oxygen consumption in pericarps incubated at 30°C was attenuated with antibiotics, which concomitantly promoted achene germination. In agreement with the observed more severe oxygen deprivation to the embryo exerted by the pericarp, the bacterial load in the pericarp was significantly higher in the commercial hybrid than in the inbred line; however, the application of antibiotics strongly reduced the bacterial colony counts for each genotype. Different bacterial and fungal communities, assessed through their profiles of carbon-source utilization, were determined between genotypes and after treatment with antibiotics. This work highlights the relationship between enhancement of sensitivity to hypoxia with incubation temperature and seed dormancy expression, and suggests that microbial activity might be part of the mechanism through which hypoxia is imposed.

Soldier thistle [Picnomon acarna (L.) Cass.] is widely distributed throughout rainfed fields across western Iran, where it decreases crop yields and interferes with harvest operations. This study was conducted to determine the influence of different factors on seed germination and seedling emergence of P. acarna. Freshly harvested seeds were dormant and required an after-ripening period for breaking dormancy. Seed germination was greatly promoted by light. Germination occurred over a wide spectrum of constant and fluctuating temperature regimes, ranging from 5 to 35 C, with highest germination at constant (74%) and fluctuating (94%) temperatures of 20 and 20/10 C. Seed germination of P. acarna was tolerant to osmotic potential, while salt stress significantly inhibited its germination percentage. pH was not an inhibiting factor for germination of P. acarna seeds. Seedling emergence decreased exponentially with an increase in seed burial depth in the soil; at soil burial depths of 4 cm or greater, no seedlings were able to reach the soil surface. The results suggest that significant seed germination of P. acarna in rainfed fields is possible, and the weed has great potential to spread throughout rainfed systems in western Iran. Based on these results, effective control of P. acarna can be achieved by applying interrow cultivation in row crops and deep tillage at seedbed preparation.