This research paper proposes a simple image processing technique for automatic lameness detection in dairy cows under farm conditions. Seventy-five cows were selected from a dairy farm and visually assessed for a reference/real lameness score (RLS) as they left the milking parlor, while simultaneously being video-captured. The method employed a designated walking path and video recordings processed through image analysis to derive a new computerized automatic lameness score (ALDS) based on calculated factors from back arch posture. The proposed automatic lameness detection system was calibrated using 12 cows, and the remaining 63 were used to evaluate the diagnostic characteristics of the ALDS. The agreement and correlation between ALDS and RLS were investigated. ALDS demonstrated high diagnostic accuracy with 100% sensitivity and specificity and was found to be 100% accurate with a perfect agreement (ρc = 1) and strong correlation (r = 1, P < 0.001) for lameness detection in binary scores (lame/non-lame). Moreover, the ALDS had a strong agreement (ρc = 0.885) and was highly correlated (r = 0.840; 0.796–1.000 95% confidence interval, P < 0.001) with RLS in ordinal scores (lameness severity; LS1 to LS5). Our findings suggest that the proposed method has the potential to compete with vision-based lameness detection methods in dairy cows in farm conditions.

Activity biosensors have been used recently to measure and diagnose the physiological status of dairy cows. However, owing to the variety of commercialized activity biosensors available in the market, activity data generated by a biosensor need to be standardized to predict the status of an animal and make relevant decisions. Hence, the objective of this study was to develop a standardization method for accommodating activity measurements from different sensors. Twelve Holstein dairy cows were monitored to collect 12 862 activity data from four types of sensors over five months. After confirming similar cyclic activity patterns from the sensors through correlation and regression analyses, the gamma distribution was employed to calculate the cumulative probability of the values of each biosensor. Then, the activity values were assigned to three levels (i.e., idle, normal and active) based on the defined proportion of each level, and the values at each level from the four sensors were compared. The results showed that the number of measurements belonging to the same level was similar, with less than a 10% difference at a specific threshold value. In addition, more than 87% of the heat alerts generated by the internal algorithm of three of the four biosensors could be assigned to the active level, suggesting that the current standardization method successfully integrated the activity measurements from different biosensors. The developed probability-based standardization method is expected to be applicable to other biosensors for livestock, which will lead to the development of models and solutions for precision livestock farming.

This study aimed to conduct a meta-analysis using the random-effects model to merge published genetic parameter estimates for milk coagulation properties (MCP: comprising rennet coagulation time (RCT), curd-firming time (k20), curd firmness 30 min after rennet addition (a30), titrable acidity (TA) and milk acidity or pH) in dairy cows. Overall, 80 heritability estimates and 157 genetic correlations from 23 papers published between 1999 and 2020 were used. The heritability estimates for RCT, a30, k20, TA, and pH were 0.273, 0.303, 0.278, 0.189 and 0.276, respectively. The genetic correlation estimates between RCT-a30, RCT-pH, and RCT-TA were 0.842, 0.549 and −0.565, respectively. Genetic correlation estimates between RCT and production traits were generally low and ranged from −0.142 (between RCT and casein content) to 0.094 (between RCT and somatic cell score). Moderate and significant genetic correlations were observed between a30-pH (−0.396) and a30-TA (0.662). Also, the genetic correlation estimates between a30 and production traits were low to moderate and varied from −0.165 (between a30 and milk yield) to 0.481 (between a30 and casein content). Genetic correlation estimates between pH and production traits were low and varied from −0.190 (between pH and milk protein percentage) to 0.254 (between pH and somatic cell score). The results of this meta-analysis indicated the existence of additive genetic variation for MCP that could be used in genetic selection programs for dairy cows. Because of the moderate heritability of MCP and small genetic correlations with production traits, it could be possible to improve MCP with negligible correlated effects on production traits.

Guidelines for the housing of dairy cows do not address the provision of supplementary lighting in passageways, other than for inspection of the animals. Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether lighting passageways to various intensities influenced the locomotion of dairy cows. The first experiment compared the locomotion of dairy cows in a dark or lighted passageway as they walked back to their accommodation from milking. When the passageway was dark, the cows took shorter but more rapid steps - which probably increased their stability. In the second experiment, cows walked down a cubicle passageway to receive a food reward, with the light intensity in the building varying from 0-250 lux. Step length and stepping rate were recorded, as well as the angles of the cows’ leg joints (which were measured from video recordings). Once again, the cows increased their stepping rate in the dark, and this resulted in an increased walking rate, perhaps because they wished to return more rapidly to other members of their group and found the darkness aversive. In addition, the arcs of travel of the metacarpophalangeal joint and of the fore- and hindfeet angles to the floor were reduced in the dark, probably increasing the cows’ stability, and were greatest at 119 lux. The slowest walking rate was observed at 39 lux. Hence, the optimum illumination for dairy cow locomotion may lie approximately between 39 and 119 lux, as measured by our technique.

We conclude that during locomotion in dark passageways cows have to modify their walking behaviour significantly, so that the provision of at least a low level of lighting is desirable at night.

The aim of this study was to illustrate the integration of different parameters into an overall assessment of animal welfare on the basis of studies with dairy cows. Behavioural observations were carried out on 36 farms with cubicle houses. Summed variables of resting behaviour were constructed by summing the results for three to nine behaviours. These summed variables showed higher correlations with cubicle features than did single behaviours. Individual animals may react differently to the same causes (cubicle features), and adding up may compensate for these different reactions of individuals to the same causes. Most recorded behaviours correlated with one another; this could be interpreted as evidence for identical causes. A cubicle sum variable was constructed, giving scores for cubicle features. The cubicle sum variable showed higher correlations with resting behaviours than did single cubicle features. This suggests that certain behaviours are affected by several cubicle features (additive effects). This hypothesis was confirmed by multivariate analysis.

The modern dairy industry involves close contact between the stockperson and their animals and thus complex relationships develop between stockperson and cow. This study examines the assessment of stockmanship quality on commercial dairy farms and aims to develop useable protocols for on-farm assessment of stockmanship for inclusion in a quality-assurance scheme. In this study the behaviour of cows was used to assess the quality of stockmanship on fifteen commercial dairy farms, which varied in level of production and intensification. The behavioural reactions of cows to a novel human and the behaviour of the stockperson before, during and after milking were scored, and stockpersons completed a fifty-question psychometric attitude questionnaire, which was made up of seven subgroups of questions. Preliminary results indicated that stockpersons differ in the behaviour they use when handling cows. Stockpersons on zero-grazing farms appeared to use fewer positive tactile behaviours and more severe negative behaviour. The behavioural responses of cows in a novel human approach test differed between farm types. Cows on straw-court farms appeared to be more flighty and less confident in the presence of a novel human. Differences were observed in mean attitude scores for the seven subgroups of questions. Job type appears to have an effect on the extent of the stockperson's positive attitude toward cows, animals in general, job satisfaction and farm economics. The results indicate that there are differences in quality of stockmanship between farms and that the three methods chosen do identify these. They show that the human-animal relationship is a potential source of fear for cows in dairy production and therefore can be used to identify poor stockmanship.

This study compares cortisol concentrations in plasma and milk over a time-span of 1-4h following injection of an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or a physiological stressor. Its aim was to characterize the usefulness of milk cortisol concentrations as short-term measures of acute stress.

Experiment 1: three groups of lactating cows (Groups B - D; n = 5, each) were injected with ACTH1-24 at 4, 2 and 1h before milking, respectively, so that each experienced a similar period of elevated adrenocortical activity, but presented at milking with varying plasma cortisol concentrations. Another group (Group A; n = 5) was a saline-treated control. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 7, 8, 24 and 56ng ml−1 for Groups A, B, C and D, respectively. Mean cortisol concentrations in milk were similar for Groups A and B (1.2 and 0.5 ng ml−1, respectively), higher in Group C (2.4ng ml−1), and greatest in Group D (11.7 ng ml−1; p <0.001).

Experiment 2: lactating dairy cows (n = 15) were injected with ACTH, transported by truck, or blood-sampled only (control) during the 2h before milking. Mean plasma cortisol concentrations at milking were 6, 20 and 72 ng ml−1 following control, ACTH and transport treatments, respectively; mean concentrations of cortisol in milk displayed a similar pattern (1.1, 2.4 and 12.0 ng ml−1, respectively; p <0.001).

Milk cortisol concentrations were highly correlated with plasma levels at milking, but did not reflect those situations where, following a period of elevation within the previous 4h, plasma cortisol concentrations had returned to basal levels. Concentrations of cortisol in foremilk and composite milk were highly correlated, but the mechanisms of cortisol flux may differ between these two compartments. Milk cortisol concentration can be a useful indicator of responses of lactating cows to acute stressors which act up to 2h before collection of samples.

An experiment is described where 40 spring-calving dairy cows were allocated to be housed in a deep straw yard or a cubicle house from November to April, in order to examine the effects on behaviour, milk production and hoof health. Cows in straw yards spent longer lying down and feeding, except during oestrus when they increased their time spent standing proportionately more than cows in cubicles. In the straw yard cows spent longer in associative behaviour during oestrus and had fewer unsuccessful mounting attempts. There were no differences in milk production or composition but cows in the straw yard lost more weight after calving. Cows in the cubicles had a reduction in heel depth, which is a predisposing factor to lameness. It is concluded that a straw yard system for dairy cows allows greater opportunity to display normal behaviour, leads to better hoof health and provides acceptable levels of production.

Most dairy producers believe that early separation of the cow and calf is necessary for reproductive efficiency, to minimise health problems and to improve the ease of milking. In addition, many consider that it is less distressing for both animals if separation occurs earlier rather than later. In this paper we review the welfare and production effects of early separation on the cow and calf. Research has shown that the cow's immediate behavioural response to separation from the calf increases with increased contact with the calf, but other work has shown that cow health and productivity are positively affected by the presence of the calf. Calf response to separation also increases when the calf spends more time with the cow, but there are long-term benefits of prolonged contact in terms of sociality, fearfulness and future maternal behaviour. Health, weight gain and future productivity are also improved when the calf is allowed to spend more time with the cow.

A large range of variables can affect the welfare of the dairy cow, making it difficult to assess the overall ‘level of welfare’ of the individual animal. Two groups of individuals completed a questionnaire based upon the ‘five freedoms’: 26 respondents had expertise either in the field of dairy cow welfare or as practicing veterinary surgeons, and 30 were veterinary students in their penultimate year of study. Conjoint analysis was used to calculate the average importance scores (AIS) for 34 variables presented to the respondents as 52 ‘model cows’ in the form of grouped questions, phrases and pictures. Conjoint analysis identified the most important factors for each ‘freedom’: access to forage, body condition score, foot conformation, hock lesions, and the encouragement required for a dairy cow to walk into the parlour. There was a significant difference between the expert and student groups for seven out of 34 factors, which may be attributed to individual variation of opinion, knowledge, experience and expectation. The factors were ranked within each ‘freedom’ using the experts' AIS but it was not assumed that each freedom had equal ‘weight’; therefore, the factors within each freedom were compared only with factors within the same freedom. These scores produced a weighting scale, which was applied on-farm, in a preliminary exercise comparing ‘model’ and ‘perceived’ welfare scores.

As part of a larger on-farm dairy cow welfare and behaviour project, data were collected from 22 commercial dairy farms over two winters (2000-2001 and 2001-2002). A further winter of farm sampling will complete the project (2002-2003), with five types of housing and production systems being assessed: high-, medium- and low-milk-production herds with cubicle housing, high-production herds with zero grazing and cubicle housing, and medium-production herds with straw courts. All cows in one early or mid-lactation group from each farm were observed. For the current analysis, locomotion, cleanliness and body condition were scored for the group, and an audit of building quality was carried out. Analysis of the available data shows that some aspects of building design affect the welfare of dairy cows. A positive correlation was found between mean body condition score of the cows and mean locomotion score (P = 0.047). Body condition score correlated negatively with the number of cows in the group (P = 0.049). Negative correlations were found between locomotion score and the ratio of cubicles to cows (P = 0.033) and between the size of cubicles and leg cleanliness (P = 0.012). Trends were also seen in the relationships between farm type and locomotion score (P = 0.048), production level and locomotion score (P = 0.074) and cow cleanliness and cubicle size (P = 0.061). These results indicate that the quality of the housing and the management system can affect cow welfare. These measures may be useful to include in on-farm welfare assessment schemes.

Adrenocortical activity and time budgets in a robotic milking system in two variants of cow traffic (partially forced, free) were compared with a conventional milking system, focusing on the relationships between adrenocortical activity, time budgets, and social rank of the cows. Both groups were housed in identical conditions and consisted of 30 cows each. Within each experiment, direct observations of social behaviour and 24-hour video recordings were conducted during six two-day blocks. We calculated the dominance value and the time budget (‘lying’, ‘feeding’, ‘other activity’) of each cow. Faeces from each cow were collected to determine the concentration of cortisol metabolites (CCM) as an indicator of baseline adrenocortical activity and possible chronic stress. Analysis of CCM and time budgets did not indicate any adverse effects of the robotic milking system, with one exception: under partially-forced cow traffic, cows of low social rank had longer waiting times in front of the robot. Considering the fact that the number of cows milked by the robot was less than half of that recommended by the manufacturers, our results do not exclude the possibility that a higher stocking rate may lead to further adverse effects.

This paper presents an account of a Welfare Quality® assessment of 92 dairy farms carried out by seven experienced assessors. The aim was to evaluate the potential of the Welfare Quality® assessment protocol with respect to its uptake by UK farm assurance schemes. Data collection, and measure aggregation were performed according to the Welfare Quality® protocol for dairy cows. This study examined the data itself, by the testing of how hypothetical interventions might be reflected in changes in the aggregated scores, and also investigated human-related aspects, through inter-assessor standardisation sessions to evaluate reliability, and an assessor focus group to collect feedback. Overall, three main ‘challenges’ were identified. The first challenge related to the large amount of missing data. Unexpectedly, this was such that it was only possible to calculate an overall classification for 7% of farms. The second challenge concerned the way in which aggregated scores did not always reflect hypothetical interventions. The final challenge was inter-assessor reliability, where not all assessors were found to achieve acceptable levels of agreement on a number of outcome measures by the third training session. Suggestions for managing these challenges included, follow-up to assessor training, the use of multiple imputation methods to fill in missing data, and, where applicable, not aggregating the scores. The conclusion of the study was that the protocol provided useful information from which to make an informed selection of measures, but that the challenges, combined with the lengthy assessment time, were too great for its use as a certification tool.

Dairy cattle have a high level of interaction with humans throughout their productive life. Welfare and productivity are affected if cows find these interactions aversive, so tests assessing fear of humans have been included in welfare assessment protocols. Practicality issues suggest that all animals on large farms cannot be tested. If a sub-sample is chosen, then animal factors affecting the response must be investigated. To assess the effect of age, 114 Holstein cows were tested at regular intervals across their productive lifetime. Animals were tested at 12-15 months of age, first breeding, prior to first calving, then at early, mid and late lactation for 1st and 2nd lactations and into their 3rd lactation. The test involved approaching each cow when standing in the passageway of the barn with sufficient space to retreat. Response was recorded on a 0-8 incremental scale, and several qualitative terms were scored using sliding scales from absence to full presence. There was a significant effect of age on response. Cows became more approachable with increasing age, up until the middle of the first lactation, with no further change beyond this stage. Cows became more at ease and less nervous with increasing age. Individual cow within-group rankings for tests at each stage showed correlation with rankings in the following stage. As this is a single-farm study, further research is necessary to assess interaction of factors such as housing, breed and quality of human handling on the long-term development of fear of humans. However, the results suggest that the age of the animal tested affects the response, and that animals of different age groups should be tested when a sub-sampling is required to assess welfare on large farms.

The aim of this study was to investigate several production parameters and the level of welfare of organic dairy cows kept in two different geographical and social contexts. The study group included 1,751 cows from 19 organic dairy farms, 11 of which were situated in hilly areas and 8 in plains areas. After an examination had been made of the general characteristics of each farm, the following data were collected: milk production; milk protein and lipid content; somatic cell count (SCC) and microbial count; lameness score (LS); body condition score (BCS) and udder cleanliness score (UHS). Welfare level was assessed using Bartussek's ANI-35-L system and the van Roessel ‘prototype for clinical welfare scoring’. Our data indicate that remarkable organisational and management differences exist between the two types of farms: farms in plains areas have a larger number of cattle and are corporate in structure rather than family run. The levels of welfare, health and production were shown to be high in both types of farms, though in some cases higher welfare scores were observed in farms situated in plains areas. The two types of ‘welfare scores’ we used were positively correlated. Our data indicate that organic farming of dairy cows successfully combines, in the large majority of cases, good levels of productivity, animal health and animal welfare; this latter aspect may be a valuable marketing point for organic milk, considering the propensity displayed by a significant portion of European consumers to buy food produced using systems that assure a high degree of animal welfare.

The effects of short-term road transport on dairy cow welfare have been the focus of very few studies. This study is the first to evaluate whether short-term transport of dairy cows under conditions similar to a typical journey from farm to slaughterhouse can cause nonlame cows to become lame. In total, 203 Danish Holstein cows from 18 different commercial Danish dairy herds were included in the study. In each herd, a large number of cows were locomotion scored and 8-12 non-lame cows were selected for transport. After the initial locomotion scoring, the selected cows were loaded onto a truck and transported on average 84 km (1 h 55 min) using a route simulating a typical transportation of cows to slaughter under Danish conditions. Returning to the herd of origin, the cows were immediately unloaded and locomotion scored by the same observer as prior to transport. Results showed that locomotion score did not change significantly and that no cows became lame as a consequence of the transport.

Lameness is one of the greatest infringements of welfare in dairy cows. The objective of this study was to investigate associations between milk yield and foot lesions causing lameness in Chilean dairy cattle with the hypothesis that if we can demonstrate that lameness reduces yield, and so income, from lame dairy cows then we have both economic and welfare arguments for reducing lameness in dairy cattle. For one year, all lame cows from seven farms with Holstein Friesian cattle were treated by their herdsmen. Herdsmen were trained by the researcher and a colour atlas was utilised to assist in diagnosis of lesions. All abnormalities on the foot and the suspected cause of lameness were recorded, and cattle were treated. A two-level hierarchical model with repeated monthly test-day yields within cows was used to investigate the impact of double sole (DS), sole ulcer (SU), white line disease (WLD), digital dermatitis (DD) and all ‘other’ causes of lameness on milk yield before and after treatment. There were 1,635 cows with complete data. Cattle with a DS were higher yielding than cattle that were never lame with a reduction in yield from four months before treatment. Cattle lame with DD were higher yielding than non-lame cattle before and after treatment. For all causes of lameness, yield increased the month after treatment. We conclude that lesions causing lameness reduced the milk yield of dairy cows in these seven herds in Chile. We discuss the current evidence base for prevention of lameness in dairy cows and hypothesise that rapid treatment is a feasible current approach to improve cow welfare immediately and probably reduce milk lost; more evidence for effective prevention is required.

The greatest challenge to the welfare of dairy cows occurs in the peripartum period. Given the perception that cow welfare is better in more natural environments, it was hypothesised that cows in a PASTURE-based production system (cubicle housing with grass silage pre-partum and rotational grazing with concentrate supplementation post-partum) would have improved peripartal welfare compared to cows in a HOUSED production system (cubicle housing with a total mixed ration [TMR], pre-partum and post-partum). Blood samples were analysed for acute phase proteins (APP), cortisol, white blood cell (WBC) differential and counts and other biochemical metabolites as non-specific indicators of sub-clinical ill-health and nutritional stress. Daily monitoring of rectal temperature (RT) and rumen fill (RF) scores were used to monitor ill-health and nutritional status. Reproductive health and welfare (calving difficulty, retained placenta, puerperal metritis, endometritis and oestrous cyclicity) was also recorded. No differences were found between treatments for APP, cortisol or WBC. Blood metabolite differences indicated that PASTURE cows were under greater nutritional stress than HOUSED cows. HOUSED cows showed an increase in RF score from day 0 to 10 post-partum and had a higher RF score than PASTURE cows. PASTURE cows had an overall lower RT and lower incidence of reproductive disorders. Results primarily reflect nutritional differences between treatments with PASTURE cows showing greater potential nutritional/metabolic stress in early lactation which has attendant implications for welfare. Nevertheless, this did not result in inferior health and, in accordance with our hypothesis, PASTURE cows’ reproductive health and welfare tended to be better than that of HOUSED cows.

The aim of this study was to assess the welfare of culled dairy cattle sent to an auction in the UK and identify associations between animal-based measurement and economic gain. The population of cull dairy cows sold at a Scottish livestock market were assessed on ten occasions for measures including body condition, mobility, hair loss and lesions, swelling, body cleanliness, claw conformation and total time in pre-sale pens. Details on breed, age, breeding status, farm, weight and price were gathered from market reports and cattle passports. Questionnaires sent to farms gathered information on reason for culling, retirement period (a finishing period to improve body condition), and number of lactations, among other variables. Measures such as bodyweight, breeding status, and breed type influenced price paid, with heifers and larger animals receiving higher prices. A negative effect over price paid was due to reduced mobility and hair loss scores, suggesting that some animal-based indicators of compromised welfare may be associated with a lower economic return from the cows sent to market. No influence of retirement length on price paid was noted. Reason for culling also did not influence price paid, but considering the association found between welfare and price paid, this suggests that the farmers’ reason for culling may not be necessarily revealed by the visual appearance of the cow. This study reveals reasons for culling and quantifies the welfare of dairy cows at market and demonstrates how measures of breeding status and body size, as well as measures of welfare, influence the buyers’ decisions and prices paid at auction.

Bakery by-products (BP), rich in fats and sugars, are unconventional feed sources for cows whose effects on milk fat composition have not yet been evaluated. This research paper aimed to assess the effects of dietary BP inclusion rate and feeding period on the milk fatty acid composition. Twenty-four Simmental cows were fed a diet without BP (CON) for 1 week. Then they either continued with the CON diet or switched to one of the BP diets (with 15% or 30% BP in diet dry matter) for 3 weeks. Milk samples were taken before diet change and three times during BP feeding and analysed for fatty acid composition. Data showed that increasing BP content in the diet increased total fatty acid intake, especially of 18 : 1 n9. In the milk fat, the percentages of total monounsaturated fatty acids especially of the 18 : 1 origin linearly increased with increasing dietary BP level. The percentage of fatty acids de novo synthesized in the mammary gland (the sum of 4 : 0–14 : 0) remained similar among diets (32-34% of total fatty acids). The 16 : 0 percentage dropped from 32.5 to 29.6% and from 33.6 to 28.3% for 15% and 30% BP, respectively. Only 30% BP elevated the percentage of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA: by 59%) compared with CON throughout the 3 weeks. Proportions of 18 : 2 n6 and 18 : 3 n3 and the n6:n3 ratio were unaffected by BP and feeding time. BP feeding improved all those estimated health indices of the milk fat that are suggested to be related to coronary health. In summary, the inclusion of BP in dairy rations beneficially shifted the milk fatty acid profile to more 18 : 1 fatty acids at the expense of 16 : 0. At a 30% inclusion rate, BP feeding showed an additional benefit of increased CLA content in milk fat.