Individuals differ greatly in their ability to learn the sounds of second languages, even when learning starts early in life. Recent research has suggested that the ability to identify the idiosyncratic acoustic variations introduced into the speech stream by the speaker might be relevant for second-language (L2) phoneme learning. However, only a positive correlation between voice recognition and phoneme learning has been shown. In the present study, we investigated whether voice processing ability predicts L2 phoneme learning. We employed a battery of behavioral cognitive ability measures to assess voice processing ability and L2 phoneme learning in 57 early bilingual adults. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) and structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that voice processing ability predicts L2 phoneme learning. Our findings align with theories of speech perception that attribute a fundamental role to the analysis of voice cues and suggest that the accurate identification of speaker-specific variation is also relevant for phoneme learning.

Jöreskog (1974) developed a latent variable model for the covariance structure of the circumplex which, under certain conditions, includes a model for a patterned correlation matrix (Browne, 1977). This model is of limited usefulness, however, in that it employs a known matrix that is rank deficient for many problems. Furthermore, the model is inappropriate for the circumplex which contains negative covariances. This paper presents alternative models for the perfect circumplex and quasi-circumplex that avoids these difficulties, and that includes the important model for a patterned correlation circumplex matrix. Two numerical examples are provided.

Multilevel factor analysis models are widely used in the social sciences to account for heterogeneity in mean structures. In this paper we extend previous work on multilevel models to account for general forms of heterogeneity in confirmatory factor analysis models. We specify various models of mean and covariance heterogeneity in confirmatory factor analysis and develop Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) procedures to perform Bayesian inference, model checking, and model comparison.

We test our methodology using synthetic data and data from a consumption emotion study. The results from synthetic data show that our Bayesian model perform well in recovering the true parameters and selecting the appropriate model. More importantly, the results clearly illustrate the consequences of ignoring heterogeneity. Specifically, we find that ignoring heterogeneity can lead to sign reversals of the factor covariances, inflation of factor variances and underappreciation of uncertainty in parameter estimates. The results from the emotion study show that subjects vary both in means and covariances. Thus traditional psychometric methods cannot fully capture the heterogeneity in our data.

Under mild assumptions, when appropriate elements of a factor loading matrix are specified to be zero, all orthogonally equivalent matrices differ at most by column sign changes. Here a variety of results are given for the more complex case when the specified values are not necessarily zero. A method is given for constructing reflections to preserve specified rows and columns. When the appropriate k(k − 1)/2 elements have been specified, sufficient conditions are stated for the existence of 2k orthogonally equivalent matrices.

This paper demonstrates the feasibility of using the penalty function method to estimate parameters that are subject to a set of functional constraints in covariance structure analysis. Both types of inequality and equality constraints are studied. The approaches of maximum likelihood and generalized least squares estimation are considered. A modified Scoring algorithm and a modified Gauss-Newton algorithm are implemented to produce the appropriate constrained estimates. The methodology is illustrated by its applications to Heywood cases in confirmatory factor analysis, quasi-Weiner simplex model, and multitrait-multimethod matrix analysis.

Ansari et al. (Psychometrika 67:49–77, 2002) applied a multilevel heterogeneous model for confirmatory factor analysis to repeated measurements on individuals. While the mean and factor loadings in this model vary across individuals, its factor structure is invariant. Allowing the individual-level residuals to be correlated is an important means to alleviate the restriction imposed by configural invariance. We relax the diagonality assumption of residual covariance matrix and estimate it using a formal Bayesian Lasso method. The approach improves goodness of fit and avoids ad hoc one-at-a-time manipulation of entries in the covariance matrix via modification indexes. We illustrate the approach using simulation studies and real data from an ecological momentary assessment.

The assumptions of the model for factor analysis do not exclude a class of indeterminate covariances between factors and error variables (Grayson, 2003). The construction of all factors of the model for factor analysis is generalized to incorporate indeterminate factor-error covariances. A necessary and sufficient condition is given for indeterminate factor-error covariances to be arbitrarily small, for mean square convergence of the regression predictor of factor scores, and for the existence of a unique determinate factor and error variable. The determinate factor and error variable are uncorrelated and satisfy the defining assumptions of factor analysis. Several examples are given to illustrate the results.

The infinitesimal jackknife provides a simple general method for estimating standard errors in covariance structure analysis. Beyond its simplicity and generality what makes the infinitesimal jackknife method attractive is that essentially no assumptions are required to produce consistent standard error estimates, not even the requirement that the population sampled has the covariance structure assumed. Commonly used covariance structure analysis software uses parametric methods for estimating parameters and standard errors. When the population sampled has the covariance structure assumed, but fails to have the distributional form assumed, the parameter estimates usually remain consistent, but the standard error estimates do not. This has motivated the introduction of a variety of nonparametric standard error estimates that are consistent when the population sampled fails to have the distributional form assumed. The only distributional assumption these require is that the covariance structure be correctly specified. As noted, even this assumption is not required for the infinitesimal jackknife. The relation between the infinitesimal jackknife and other nonparametric standard error estimators is discussed. An advantage of the infinitesimal jackknife over the jackknife and the bootstrap is that it requires only one analysis to produce standard error estimates rather than one for every jackknife or bootstrap sample.

A Monte Carlo approach was employed to investigate the interpretability of improper solutions caused by sampling error in maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Four models were studied with two sample sizes. Of the overall goodness-of-fit indices provided by the LISREL VI program significant differences between improper and proper solutions were found only for the root mean square residual. As expected, indicators of the factor on which the negative uniqueness estimate occurred had biased loadings, and the correlations of its factor with other factors were also biased. In contrast, the loadings of indicators on other factors and those factor intercorrelations did not have any bias of practical significance. For initial solutions with one negative uniqueness estimate, three respecifications were studied: Fix the uniqueness at .00, fix it at .20, or constrain the domain of the solution to be proper. For alternate, respecified solutions that were converged and proper, the constrained solutions and uniqueness fixed at .00 solutions were equivalent. The mean goodness-of-fit and pattern coefficient values for the original improper solutions were not meaningfully different from those obtained under the constrained and uniqueness fixed at .00 respecifications.

The method of deriving the second derivatives of the goodness-of-fit functions of maximum likelihood and least-squares confirmatory factor analysis is discussed. The full set of second derivatives is reported.

This paper presents some results on identification in multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models. Some MTMM models are not identified when the (factorial-patterned) loadings matrix is of deficient column rank. For at least one other MTMM model, identification does exist despite such deficiency. It is also shown that for some MTMM CFA models, Howe's (1955) conditions sufficient for rotational uniqueness can fail, yet the model may well be identified and rotationally unique. Implications of these results for CFA models in general are discussed.

Several sufficient conditions are available for mean square convergence of factor predictors. A necessary and sufficient condition is given in the Heywood case with respect to (confirmatory) factor analysis. This condition generalizes that of Krijnen (2006) and performs better than a signal-to-noise type of condition (Schneeweiss & Mathes, 1995).

For the confirmatory factor model a series of inequalities is given with respect to the mean square error (MSE) of three main factor score predictors. The eigenvalues of these MSE matrices are a monotonic function of the eigenvalues of the matrix Γp = Φ1/2Λ′pΨp−1ΛpΦ1/2. This matrix increases with the number of observable variables p. A necessary and sufficient condition for mean square convergence of predictors is divergence of the smallest eigenvalue of Γp or, equivalently, divergence of signal-to-noise (Schneeweiss & Mathes, 1995). The same condition is necessary and sufficient for convergence to zero of the positive definite MSE differences of factor predictors, convergence to zero of the distance between factor predictors, and convergence to the unit value of the relative efficiencies of predictors. Various illustrations and examples of the convergence are given as well as explicit recommendations on the problem of choosing between the three main factor score predictors.

It is shown that problems of rotational equivalence of restricted factor loading matrices in orthogonal factor analysis are equivalent to problems of identification in simultaneous equations systems with covariance restrictions. A necessary (under a regularity assumption) and sufficient condition for local uniqueness is given and a counterexample is provided to a theorem by J. Algina concerning necessary and sufficient conditions for global uniqueness.

If the ratio m/p tends to zero, where m is the number of factors m and m the number of observable variables, then the inverse diagonal element of the inverted observable covariance matrix tends to the corresponding unique variance ψjj for almost all of these (Guttman, 1956). If the smallest singular value of the loadings matrix from Common Factor Analysis tends to infinity as p increases, then m/p tends to zero. The same condition is necessary and sufficient for to tend to ψjj for all of these. Several related conditions are discussed.

A general statistical model for simultaneous analysis of data from several groups is described. The model is primarily designed to be used for the analysis of covariance. The model can handle any number of covariates and criterion variables, and any number of treatment groups. Treatment effects may be assessed when the treatment groups are not randomized. In addition, the model allows for measurement errors in the criterion variables as well as in the covariates. A wide variety of hypotheses concerning the parameters of the model can be tested by means of a large sample likelihood ratio test. In particular, the usual assumptions of ANCOVA may be tested.

This paper studies changes of standard errors (SE) of the normal-distribution-based maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) for confirmatory factor models as model parameters vary. Using logical analysis, simplified formulas and numerical verification, monotonic relationships between SEs and factor loadings as well as unique variances are found. Conditions under which monotonic relationships do not exist are also identified. Such functional relationships allow researchers to better understand the problem when significant factor loading estimates are expected but not obtained, and vice versa. What will affect the likelihood for Heywood cases (negative unique variance estimates) is also explicit through these relationships. Empirical findings in the literature are discussed using the obtained results.

A construction method is given for all factors that satisfy the assumptions of the model for factor analysis, including partially determined factors where certain error variances are zero. Various criteria for the seriousness of indeterminacy are related. It is shown that Green's (1976) conjecture holds: For a linear factor predictor the mean squared error of prediction is constant over all possible factors. A simple and general geometric interpretation of factor indeterminacy is given on the basis of the distance between multiple factors. It is illustrated that variable elimination can have a large effect on the seriousness of factor indeterminacy. A simulation study reveals that if the mean square error of factor prediction equals .5, then two thirds of the persons are “correctly” selected by the best linear factor predictor.

In this article, we present a general theorem and proof for the global identification of composed CFA models. They consist of identified submodels that are related only through covariances between their respective latent factors. Composed CFA models are frequently used in the analysis of multimethod data, longitudinal data, or multidimensional psychometric data. Firstly, our theorem enables researchers to reduce the problem of identifying the composed model to the problem of identifying the submodels and verifying the conditions given by our theorem. Secondly, we show that composed CFA models are globally identified if the primary models are reduced models such as the CT-C$(M-1)$\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}\usepackage{amsmath}\usepackage{wasysym}\usepackage{amsfonts}\usepackage{amssymb}\usepackage{amsbsy}\usepackage{mathrsfs}\usepackage{upgreek}\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}\begin{document}$$(M-1)$$\end{document} model or similar types of models. In contrast, composed CFA models that include non-reduced primary models can be globally underidentified for certain types of cross-model covariance assumptions. We discuss necessary and sufficient conditions for the global identification of arbitrary composed CFA models and provide a Python code to check the identification status for an illustrative example. The code we provide can be easily adapted to more complex models.

The posterior analysis in estimating factor score in a confirmatory factor analysis model with polytomous, censored or truncated data is investigated in this paper. For the above three types of data, posterior distributions of the factor score are studied, and the estimators of the factor score are obtained to be the location parameters of the posterior distributions. The accuracy of Bayesian estimates is studied via simulation studies.