Are the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which relate to international conflicts, also applicable in the case of an “armed conflict not of an international character”?

1. Problemática de la visibilidad del signo distintivo

En los Convenios de Ginebra del 12 de agosto de 1949 se prevé, como medio general de identificación del personal y del material sanitarios, el signo distintivo de la cruz roja y de la media luna roja. En el II Convenio de Ginebra, aplicable a las víctimas de los conflictos en el mar, se asigna, además, el color bianco para las superficies exteriores de los barcos hospitales y de las embarcaciones sanitarias; asimismo, se recomienda a las partes en conflicto utilizar «los métodos más modernos» para facilitar la identificación de los medios de transporte sanitarios manítimos (artículo 43).

Por lo demás, se recomienda a las partes en conflicto que las aeronaves sanitarias tengan «cualquier otro señalamiento o medio de reconocimiento » (I Convenio, artículo 36 y II Convenio, artículo 39).

¿Qué papel piensan las mujeres que pueden desempeñar en la preventión y la solución de los conflictos? Este fue el tema de un seminario celebrado a fines de marzo de 1996, en Bamako, que congregó a una veintena de mujeres afiliadas al Movimiento National Femenino de Salvaguardia de la Paz y la Unidad National y a representantes del CICR.

En Mali, es cada vez mayor el número de mujeres que quieren integrarse de forma más completa en la vida cívica del país. El movimiento citado se creó precisamente para estimular la motivación y la participación de las mujeres en la solución de los problemas de la población tuareg del norte del país. En efecto, las mujeres pueden desempeñar una función importante en el mantenimiento de la cohesión social entre los diversos grupos étnicos y por lo que atañe al respeto de la diversidad cultural. Las integrantes del movimiento femenino dijeron que quieren conocer mejor el derecho internacional humanitario (DIH).

1. El presente Protocolo se refiere al empleo en tierra de las minas, armas trampa y otros artefactos, que en él se definen, incluidas las minas sembradas para impedir el acceso a playas, el cruce de vías acuáticas o el cruce de ríos, pero no se aplica al empleo de minas antibuques en el mar o en vías acuáticas interiores.

2. El presente Protocolo se aplicará, además de a las situaciones a que se refiere el artículo 1 de la Convención, a las situaciones a que se refiere el artículo 3 común a los Convenios de Ginebra del 12 de agosto de 1949. El presente Protocolo no se aplicará a las situaciones de tensiones internas y de disturbios interiores, tales como los motines, los actos esporádicos de violencia y otros actos análogos que no son conflictos armados.

3. En el caso de conflictos que no sean de carácter internacional que tengan lugar en el territorio de una de las Altas Partes Contratantes, cada parte en el conflicto estará obligada a aplicar las prohibiciones y restricciones del presente Protocolo.

Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, dans un appel qu'il lançait aux nations en guerre, le 23 juillet 1916, au sujet des cruautés exercées sur les prisonniers à titre de représailles, exprimait d'un mot son principe essentiel: «La Croix-Rouge a été fondée en vue d'un but unique: l'humanité». Si l'on nous demandait de caractériser aussi le but du Bureau international pour la défense des indigènes, nous ne saurions mieux faire que de donner la même réponse. Néanmoins il semble que l'on puisse dire que si la Croix-Rouge est une œuvre d'humanité-charité, le Bureau international pour la défense des indigènes est une œuvre d'humanité-justice. En effet il s'agit, pour ce dernier, de rendre ou de faire rendre à une grande portion des habitants du globe ce dont ils ont été dépouillés.

On 29 June 2021, the Review talked to representatives of the French Ministry for the Armed Forces and Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs about France's involvement in Mali and the Sahel region.* From the Ministry for the Armed Forces, the Review spoke to Claire Legras, Director of Legal Affairs, Camille Faure, Deputy Director of Legal Affairs, and Philippe Lejeune, Head of the Operational Legal Unit of the Armed Forces Staff. From the Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs, the interviewees were François Alabrune, Director of Legal Affairs, and Sandrine Barbier, Deputy Director of Legal Affairs.

Disinformation in armed conflict may pose several distinctive forms of harm to civilians: exposure to retaliatory violence, distortion of information vital to securing human needs, and severe mental suffering. The gravity of these harms, along with the modern nature of wartime disinformation, is out of keeping with the traditional classification of disinformation in international humanitarian law (IHL) as a permissible ruse of war. A patchwork set of protections drawn from IHL, international human rights law and international criminal law may be used to limit disinformation operations during armed conflict, but numerous gaps and ambiguities undermine the force of this legal framework, calling for further scholarly attention and clarification.

From a land called the “Cradle of Civilizations” to one that is now described as “apocalyptic” and “one of the most dangerous places on Earth”, Syria may have no more critical moment than the current crisis to reflect on what is taking it down this terrifyingly dark path. We resort to history in order to decipher the mysteries of the present, and there is no more honest and direct history than that of the built environment: a concrete object that tells the narratives not only of the winners, the wealthy and the powerful, but also of those who were brushed aside, cut apart and walked over.

This Opinion Note argues that reversing the process which led to the loss of home and the loss of urban fabric is the foundation of reclaiming these as essential elements of recovery after war and destruction. It examines four areas of transformation where modern urban planning and architecture have left their marks on the Levantine city, to give a clearer understanding of the role of architecture and where to begin in the rebuilding.

States must investigate possible violations of international humanitarian law in armed conflict, and many States use military procedures for all or part of the investigation process. Particular tensions can arise with regard to the perception of justice in the context of military judicial procedures, especially surrounding questions of independence and impartiality. This article lays out the international legal framework which should be used to solve these challenges, arguing that a State must address both the specificities of military institutions and the need for a perception of justice by the affected communities in considering the proper administration of justice in armed conflict.

The Great War ushered in a new era of long-distance combat. For the first time, weapons with a very long range were massively deployed, in previously unheard-of places: under the sea and in the air. Stealth fighting also included espionage and propaganda, now orchestrated on a global scale. In reaction to the carnage in the trenches, a degree of moral rehabilitation came to be conferred on the weapons initially associated with a “cowards’ war”. This in turn encouraged experimentation with the new, unmanned technology that would lead to the first prototypes of guided munitions and drones.

Academics rarely raise the need to consider persons with disabilities when preventing, investigating and prosecuting international humanitarian law (IHL) violations. Worse still, no actual attempts have been made to include a disability perspective into practical guidance and monitoring mechanisms. This article addresses that void by laying out how existing yet unutilized IHL obligations can be leveraged to repress and suppress disability-based IHL violations. In doing so, the article will detail how fact-finding approaches, criminal investigative processes and reporting methods for IHL violations can be inclusive of persons with disabilities and thus more appropriately address the endemic under-representation of a disability perspective in the planning and execution of military operations during armed conflict and the specific crimes they thereby suffer. Additionally, this article will articulate concrete changes that should be made to international criminal law procedures for prosecuting war crimes to provide recognition and accountability for disability-based IHL violations, as has been done for violations against women and children. Finally, this article will diagnose the state of the law to address any legal challenges or hurdles that may hamper the inclusion of a disability perspective in fulfilling the IHL obligation to reduce and address violations of humanitarian law.

Existen tres problemas fundamentales relacionados con el cumplimiento del derecho internacional humanitario aplicable en conflictos armados. En tiempo de paz, nadie anhelaría, en primer lugar, una situatión en la que ese derecho tenga una aplicación efectiva. Además, no es fácil despertar de hecho el interés de la gente por unas normas que poco tienen que ver con su experiencia personal. Pero, si no se realizan determinados esfuerzos y actividades en tiempo de paz, no es de esperar que dichas normas se cumplan en caso de crisis o de conflicto armado. El segundo problema radica en que, como ha evidenciado la práctica, las violaciones del derecho aplicable abundan en caso de conflicto armado. Según una opinión preconcebida y generalizada, no se pueden entablar acciones legates eficaces contra este tipo de violaciones de manera que la exigencia de protección humanitaria no suele cumplirse en realidad. El tercer problema está relacionado con los dos anteriores:

“Secret societies”, “traditional hunters”, “charms” and “mystical weapons” are recurrent terms when analyzing some of the present armed conflicts in the Sub-Saharan region. However, though spiritual beliefs shape armed groups’ behaviour, and such beliefs are integrated into the modus operandi of some armed groups, the role of these beliefs in warfare is largely overlooked. Far from being something anecdotal or incidental, the invisible world plays a role in shaping armed groups’ behaviour and framing warfare dynamics. Spiritual beliefs might influence the respect afforded to international humanitarian law and international human rights law. Such beliefs may also serve various strategic functions, including for legitimation of the group, mobilization of support, control, cohesion, discipline, motivation and protection. Digging further into the matter and understanding how such beliefs impact the internal dynamics of armed groups and their external relations, including with the State, other armed groups and communities, is an essential part of understanding armed conflicts and their aftermath.